Gwon Sang-ha

2.1. Early Life and Education

Gwon Sang-ha was born in 1641 in Hanseongbu (modern-day Seoul), Joseon. He was the son of Kwon Gyeok (권격_{Kwon Gyeok}^Korean; 1620-1671), who served as a Jipui (집의_Jipui^Korean, a censor in the Saheonbu). His mother was Lady Yi of the Hampyeong Yi clan (함평 이씨_{Hampyeong Yi-ssi}^Korean), daughter of Yi Cho-ro (이초로_{Yi Cho-ro}^Korean). He had two younger brothers, Kwon Sang-myeong (권상명_{Kwon Sang-myeong}^Korean; 1652-1684) and Kwon Sang-yu (권상유_{Kwon Sang-yu}^Korean; 1656-1724), who also became a prominent Neo-Confucian scholar and later studied under Gwon Sang-ha himself.

From an early age, Gwon Sang-ha displayed exceptional talent, earning praise from Yu Gye (유계_{Yu Gye}^Korean), a distinguished scholar. He began his studies under Yu Gye and subsequently became a devoted disciple of the leading Neo-Confucian scholars of the time, Song Si-yeol (송시열_{Song Si-yeol}^Korean) and Song Jun-gil (송준길_{Song Jun-gil}^Korean). He was particularly favored by Song Si-yeol, who regarded him as his chief disciple and academic successor. In 1660, at the age of 19, Gwon Sang-ha passed the Jinshi (진사_Jinshi^Korean) examination, qualifying him to enter the Seonggyungwan (성균관_{Seonggyungwan}^Korean), the highest educational institution in Joseon.

2.2. Political Career and Official Posts

Gwon Sang-ha's early political aspirations were influenced by the turbulent political climate. Following the first Yesong Controversy in 1659, during which his teacher Song Si-yeol was exiled, Gwon Sang-ha initially decided to forgo an official career to dedicate himself to academic research. However, he later entered government service, holding various official positions.

He served as Gongneung Chambong (공릉 참봉_{Gongneung Chambong}^Korean), Sunneung Chambong (순릉 참봉_{Sunneung Chambong}^Korean), Uigeumbu Dosa (의금부 도사_{Uigeumbu Dosa}^Korean), Sanguiwon Jubu (상의원 주부_{Sanguiwon Jubu}^Korean), and Gongjo Jeongrang (공조 정랑_{Gongjo Jeongrang}^Korean). He was later appointed to higher positions such as Saheonbu Jipyeong (사헌부 지평_{Saheonbu Jipyeong}^Korean), Jangnyeong (장령_Jangnyeong^Korean), and Jibui (집의_Jibui^Korean). His academic standing also led to appointments in educational institutions, including Seonggyungwan Saeop (성균관 사업_{Seonggyungwan Saeop}^Korean) and Seonggyungwan Jwaeju (성균관 좨주_{Seonggyungwan Jwaeju}^Korean), as well as roles in the royal court such as Sigangwon Jinseon (시강원 진선_{Sigangwon Jinseon}^Korean) and Jongbusi Jeong (종부시정_{Jongbusi Jeong}^Korean).

Despite his rise through the ranks, Gwon Sang-ha frequently resigned from official posts, preferring to focus on scholarship and education. After the Gapsulhwanguk (갑술환국_{Gapsulhwanguk}^Korean) in 1694, which saw the downfall of the Namin faction, he resigned his posts and returned to his studies. He was repeatedly appointed to high positions such as Hojo Chamui (호조 참의_{Hojo Chamui}^Korean), Ijo Chamui (이조 참의_{Ijo Chamui}^Korean), Hojo Champan (호조참판_{Hojo Champan}^Korean), and Ijo Champan (이조참판_{Ijo Champan}^Korean). From 1705 to 1716, he was nominated for Daesahon (대사헌_Daesahon^Korean, Chief Censor) annually for 13 consecutive years but consistently declined the appointment.

In 1712, he was appointed Hanseongbu Panyun (한성부 판윤_{Hanseongbu Panyun}^Korean, Mayor of Seoul) and then Ijo Panseo (이조판서_{Ijo Panseo}^Korean, Minister of Personnel). In 1717, he was promoted to Uijeongbu Jwachanseong (의정부 좌찬성_{Uijeongbu Jwachanseong}^Korean, Left Chancellor) and subsequently to Uuijeong (우의정_Uuijeong^Korean, Right State Councillor) and Jwauijeong (좌의정_Jwauijeong^Korean, Left State Councillor), the highest ministerial positions. However, he resigned shortly after each appointment, demonstrating his preference for academic pursuits over political power.

2.3. Academic Research and Thought

Gwon Sang-ha was a central figure in the Gihwa School, a prominent branch of Neo-Confucianism in Joseon. He firmly adhered to the academic lineage of Yi I and Song Si-yeol, strongly advocating for Yi I's "Gi-bal-i-seung-il-do-seol," which posits that 'Gi' (material force) initiates 'Li' (principle). He dedicated himself to researching and clarifying fundamental Neo-Confucian problems that had been debated since the 16th century by scholars such as Seo Gyeong-deok, Yi Hwang, Gi Dae-seung, Yi I, and Seong Hon. He also actively translated, corrected, and disseminated the works of the Cheng-Zhu school, the foundational texts of Neo-Confucianism.

A defining aspect of his academic career was his involvement in the "Horak debate" (호락논쟁_{Horak Nonjaeng}^Korean), a major philosophical controversy concerning the identity and difference between human nature (인성_in-seong^Korean) and material nature (물성_mul-seong^Korean). When his disciples, Yi Gan (이간_{Yi Gan}^Korean) and Han Won-jin (한원진_{Han Won-jin}^Korean), engaged in this debate, Gwon Sang-ha sided with Han Won-jin's "difference theory" (상이론_sang-i-ron^Korean). He argued that while 'Li' is universally present (이통_i-tong^Korean), 'Gi' limits its manifestation (기국_gi-guk^Korean), leading to differences between human and material natures. This stance, rooted in Yi I's "I-tong-gi-guk" (이통기국_{I-tong-gi-guk}^Korean) theory, aimed to distinguish human moral nature from animalistic instincts. His support for Han Won-jin's perspective further intensified the debate, ultimately leading to the division of the Gihwa School into the Horon (호론_Horon^Korean, supporting the difference theory) and Nakron (낙론_Nakron^Korean, supporting the identity theory) factions.

Gwon Sang-ha also vehemently attacked the academic tenets of the Namin and Soron factions, labeling their philosophies as heterodox. This rigid adherence to his own school's doctrine contributed to the deepening of ideological divisions within Joseon intellectual circles. He was considered the patriarch of the Gihoseoinhakpa (기호서인학파_{Gihoseoinhakpa}^Korean), which inherited the academic lineage from Jo Gwang-jo and Baek In-geol, and from Song Ik-pil through Kim Jang-saeng and Kim Jip.

2.4. Relationships with Teachers and Contemporaries

Gwon Sang-ha maintained profound master-disciple relationships with Song Si-yeol and Song Jun-gil. He attended the deathbeds of both his mentors, first Song Jun-gil in 1672 and then Song Si-yeol in 1689. When Song Si-yeol was exiled to Jeju Island and later summoned for interrogation, Gwon Sang-ha accompanied him on his final journey from Gwangyang to Jeong-eup, where Song Si-yeol was ultimately given poison. At this poignant moment, Song Si-yeol entrusted Gwon Sang-ha with his clothes and books, explicitly naming him as his academic and ideological successor. Song Si-yeol's dying words to Gwon Sang-ha emphasized upholding the "great righteousness" (대의_daeui^Korean) of King Hyojong and always acting with "straightness" (직_jik^Korean). Song Si-yeol also left him a letter stating, "I have always hoped to realize the Way in the morning and die in the evening, but now I die without fully realizing it. From now on, I only trust Chido (치도_Chido^Korean, Gwon Sang-ha's courtesy name). Scholarship should focus on Zhu Xi, and endeavors should focus on King Hyojong's great righteousness."

However, Gwon Sang-ha's relationships with other contemporaries were often marked by intense conflict, particularly with Yun Jeung (윤증_{Yun Jeung}^Korean), a fellow disciple of Song Si-yeol and a leader of the Soron faction. The initial rift between Song Si-yeol and Yun Jeung, known as the Hoe-ni Dispute (회니시비_{Hoe-ni Sibi}^Korean), deeply affected Gwon Sang-ha. He initially maintained some contact with Yun Jeung but severed ties after Yun Jeung's final break with Song Si-yeol over the epitaph for Yun Jeung's father, Yun Seon-geo (윤선거_{Yun Seon-geo}^Korean). Gwon Sang-ha thereafter regarded Yun Jeung as an enemy, accusing him of betraying their master.

This animosity escalated during the "Garyewonryu" (가례원류_Garyewonryu^Korean) controversy in 1715, a dispute over the authorship of a book on family rituals. Gwon Sang-ha wrote a preface asserting that the book was solely the work of Yu Gye, rather than a collaboration with Yun Seon-geo, thereby undermining Yun Jeung's position. He further inflamed tensions by writing Song Si-yeol's epitaph, explicitly stating that Song Si-yeol's misfortunes were orchestrated by Yun Jeung, Yun Hyu, and Heo Mok. This provoked strong protests from Soron scholars and officials, who demanded the epitaph be revised, a demand Gwon Sang-ha refused.


He also engaged in heated debates with Park Se-dang (박세당_{Park Se-dang}^Korean), a scholar who offered alternative interpretations of the Four Books and Five Classics in his work, Sabyonrok (사변록_Sabyonrok^Korean). Gwon Sang-ha criticized Park Se-dang's scholarship as heterodox and led efforts by Noron officials to attack him, particularly over Park Se-dang's epitaph for Yi Gyeong-seok, which Gwon Sang-ha found critical of Song Si-yeol. He also clashed with Yi Gyeong-seok's grandson over the epitaph issue.

2.5. Major Activities and Achievements

q=Mandongmyo, Cheongju|position=right
Gwon Sang-ha's most significant achievements revolved around preserving and propagating the legacy of Song Si-yeol and upholding Joseon's commitment to the Ming Dynasty. Following Song Si-yeol's death, Gwon Sang-ha fulfilled his master's dying wish by establishing the Mandongmyo (만동묘_Mandongmyo^Korean) shrine in Hwayangdong (화양동_Hwayangdong^Korean), Cheongju. This shrine was dedicated to honoring the Ming Dynasty emperors Shenzong (신종_Sinjong^Korean) and Yizong (의종_Uijong^Korean). The purpose was to express gratitude to Emperor Shenzong for his military aid during the Imjin War and to commemorate Emperor Yizong, the last Ming emperor, who died upholding the righteous path of a monarch. This act underscored Joseon's deep-seated "Zhonghua thought" and its loyalty to the fallen Ming. The Mandongmyo later developed into the Hwayangdong Seowon (화양동 서원_{Hwayangdong Seowon}^Korean), serving as a cradle for talent within the ruling Noron faction until the period of Sedo politics. It was eventually closed during Heungseon Daewongun's rule, reportedly due to an incident where Heungseon Daewongun, while visiting Mandongmyo, was reportedly beaten by a caretaker for disrespecting the solemn atmosphere.

In addition to Mandongmyo, Gwon Sang-ha, under King Sukjong's special command, also oversaw the establishment of the Daebodan (대보단_Daebodan^Korean). This altar was built to express gratitude to the Ming Dynasty for its assistance during the Imjin War and to commemorate the Ming soldiers who fought for Joseon. These establishments served as powerful symbols of Joseon's continued adherence to Ming loyalism and its self-perception as the legitimate inheritor of orthodox Confucian civilization after the Ming's fall.

Gwon Sang-ha also tirelessly worked to publish and distribute Song Si-yeol's collected works, ensuring his mentor's teachings reached a wider audience. Furthermore, he actively campaigned for the posthumous restoration of King Danjong's (단종_Danjong^Korean) royal title and the recognition and commendation of loyal subjects, including the Sayuksin (사육신_Sayuksin^Korean, Six Martyred Ministers) and Saengyuksin (생육신_Saengyuksin^Korean, Six Living Loyal Subjects), who had remained loyal to Danjong during his deposition.

2.6. Seclusion and Disciple Cultivation

Throughout his life, Gwon Sang-ha frequently withdrew from official duties to dedicate himself to scholarly research and the education of future generations of scholars. After the Gapsulhwanguk of 1694, he chose to retire to the mountains of Cheongpung and later to Hwanggang (황강_Hwanggang^Korean) in Cheongpung, where he established Hansujae (한수재_Hansujae^Korean) in October 1686 and Yeollakjae (열락재_Yeollakjae^Korean) in November of the same year. In these secluded environments, he gathered disciples and lectured on Neo-Confucianism, focusing on the Four Books, Gyemong, Gyesa, and Hongbeom Naepyeon. He also undertook the important task of correcting and translating the works of Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, and Zhu Xi, making these foundational texts more accessible. He even extended his efforts to women, distributing Korean translations of Sajaso Hak and the Four Books and Three Classics.

Gwon Sang-ha's commitment to education produced numerous influential scholars, solidifying his position as a leading educator of his time. His most renowned disciples, collectively known as the "Gangmun Palhaksasa" (강문팔학사_{Gangmun Palhaksasa}^Korean, Eight Scholars of Gangmun), included Han Won-jin, Yi Gan, Yun Bong-gu (윤봉구_{Yun Bong-gu}^Korean), Yi I-geun (이이근_{Yi I-geun}^Korean), Hyeon Sang-byeok (현상벽_{Hyeon Sang-byeok}^Korean), Choe Jing-hu (최징후_{Choe Jing-hu}^Korean), Chae Ji-hong (채지홍_{Chae Ji-hong}^Korean), and Seong Man-jing (성만징_{Seong Man-jing}^Korean). His academic lineage continued through figures such as Yi Gan, Han Won-jin, Hong Gye-hui, Yi Jae (이재_{Yi Jae}^Korean), and Im Seong-ju (임성주_{Im Seong-ju}^Korean).

2.7. Later Life and Death

In his later years, Gwon Sang-ha continued to prioritize scholarship and teaching over political office. Despite repeated appointments to high positions, including Daesahon from 1705 to 1716, he consistently declined, choosing to remain in seclusion. In 1717, while recuperating from an illness at a hot spring in Onyang, he was unexpectedly appointed Uuijeong (Right State Councillor). He promptly returned to his rural home in Goesan, submitting a petition to resign. Although King Sukjong urged him to accept the position, Gwon Sang-ha eventually agreed to an audience with the king, where he emphasized the importance of a monarch's upright heart and the principles of "Chun-chu Dae-ui" (춘추대의_{Chun-chu Dae-ui}^Korean, the great righteousness of the Spring and Autumn Annals) as inherited from King Hyojong. Despite the king's earnest pleas, Gwon Sang-ha resigned shortly after and returned to his hometown. He was then promoted to Jwauijeong (Left State Councillor) but again firmly refused to take office.

Gwon Sang-ha passed away on September 2, 1721, at the age of 80. His death was widely mourned, with hundreds of his disciples donning mourning clothes and rushing to his shrine. He was posthumously granted the name Mun-sun (문순_Mun-sun^Korean). His tomb is located in Sondong-ri, Dongnyang-myeon, Chungju, North Chungcheong Province, with his son Kwon Uk's tomb situated in front of it.