Gerhard von Scharnhorst

1.1. Birth and Education

Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst was born on November 12, 1755, at Bordenau, which is now part of Neustadt am Rübenberge in Lower Saxony, near Hanover. He came from a family of minor landowners, described as prosperous farmers, and his father had previously served as a non-commissioned officer in the cavalry. This familial background influenced his early ambition for a military career. In 1773, Scharnhorst successfully secured admission to the Wilhelmstein military academy, located within the Wilhelmstein fortress, where he dedicated himself to studying military theory and the principles of military reform.

1.2. Service in the Hanoverian Army and Early Writings

Scharnhorst commenced his military career in 1778, receiving a commission as an ensign in the Hanoverian service. Initially, he was assigned as an instructor at a cavalry regiment's affiliated school. By 1783, he was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to the artillery, receiving an appointment as an instructor at the newly established artillery school in Hanover. During this period, Scharnhorst devoted much of his time to self-education and literary work. He founded and edited a military journal, which continued to be published until 1805 and gained widespread readership across Europe.

His significant early literary contributions include the "Handbook for Officers in the Applied Sections of Military Science" (Handbuch für Offiziere in den anwendbaren Teilen der Kriegswissenschaften^German), designed and partly published in 1788. This was followed by his "Military Handbook for Use in the Field" (Militärisches Taschenbuch für den Gebrauch im Felde^German) in 1792. Both books saw multiple reprints and were highly acclaimed, establishing Scharnhorst's reputation as a prominent military theorist. The income derived from his writings provided his primary means of support, as his military rank remained relatively low, and he had a wife, Clara Schmalz (sister of Theodor Schmalz, the first director of Berlin University), and family to support.

1.3. Early Campaigns and Tactical Recognition

Scharnhorst's first major military campaign occurred in 1793 in the Netherlands, where he served with distinction under Frederick, Duke of York. In the Battle of Hondschoote, which took place from September 6 to 8, 1793, Scharnhorst played a crucial role in supporting the retreat of friendly forces, marking his first military achievement. In 1794, he participated in the defense of Menen (in modern-day Belgium), which was besieged by French forces. Under the command of General Hammerstein, Scharnhorst devised a rescue plan for the surrounded garrison and personally led a detachment to join the relief force. This operation was successful, and the forces inside the town were liberated.

His accomplishments in these battles earned him high praise, demonstrating his competence not only as a theorist but also as an effective field commander. Upon Hammerstein's recommendation, he was promoted to major and joined the Hanoverian General Staff. In 1803, he published a book analyzing the defense of Menen, titled "Defence of the Town of Menen" (Vertheidigung der Stadt Menin^German). Another notable work from this period was his paper "The Origins of the Good Fortune of the French in the Revolutionary War" (Die Ursachen des Glücks der Franzosen im Revolutionskrieg^German), in which he astutely analyzed the French military's strength as stemming from its superior organization and the unique societal structure of the nation-state, particularly after the French Revolution.

2.1. Transfer to Prussia and Initial Role

Following the Peace of Basel on March 5, 1795, Scharnhorst returned to Hanover, having gained considerable renown among the armies of various allied states. He received numerous invitations to transfer his services. Although he initially declined a Prussian offer in January 1797, as Hanover countered with a promotion to lieutenant colonel and a pay raise, the Prussian offer was renewed in 1801 with an even more attractive proposal: twice his Hanoverian pay, retention of his seniority, a substantial pension, and a patent of nobility. This time, Scharnhorst accepted the terms, formally engaging himself in the service of King Frederick William III of Prussia. His decision was also influenced by the limitations he faced in the Hanoverian army as a non-noble, where his reform proposals were often rejected.

Upon joining the Prussian service, Scharnhorst was immediately assigned to important instructional work at the Berlin Officer Training Institute (which also served as the Quartermaster-General's Department, or General Staff, at the time). Despite the director, Quartermaster-General Gneisenau, being preoccupied, Scharnhorst was granted full authority over the institute's operations. He thoroughly revised the curriculum and dedicated himself to training young officers. Among his students were notable figures who would later contribute significantly to Prussian military reform, including Clausewitz, Grolman, and Tiedemann.

2.2. Educational and Early Reform Efforts

On January 24, 1802, in commemoration of Frederick the Great's birthday, Scharnhorst and his colleagues established the Military Society, creating a forum for exchanging ideas on how to advance reforms within the Prussian army. In 1804, Scharnhorst restructured the Berlin Officer Training Institute. Beyond the institute's role in basic officer education, he founded the Berlin Army Officer School, which specialized in advanced military education and later became the Berlin War Academy in 1810, significantly broadening its scope for aspiring officers.

Despite these initiatives focused on internal military consciousness reform, comprehensive military system changes were slow to materialize. A major impediment was the presence of highly regarded veteran officers from the Seven Years' War who had served under Frederick the Great. These older officers, accustomed to the established methods, resisted altering the conventional military practices that had brought Prussia glory. In 1804, the Quartermaster-General's Department underwent a reorganization based on a proposal by Massenbach. Scharnhorst was appointed head of the department's Third Brigade, equivalent to a deputy chief of staff, though his authority and responsibilities remained limited, largely confined to advising generals. He was promoted to colonel in 1806.

2.3. Defeat of 1806 and the Urgency of Reform

In 1805, France's victory at the Battle of Austerlitz dissolved the Third Coalition against France, and Napoleon's establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine extended his influence into central Germany. Perceiving this as a critical threat, Prussia joined the Fourth Coalition and declared war on France in 1806. However, the Prussian army suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on October 14, 1806. During the ensuing retreat, Scharnhorst joined forces with Blücher's army. French forces invaded Prussian territory, occupying the entire nation. Blücher and Scharnhorst's forces surrendered at Lübeck on November 5, followed by the capitulation of the Duke of Weimar and Gneisenau's forces at Magdeburg on November 6, effectively annihilating the Prussian army within the country. King Frederick William III fled to Königsberg with his retinue.

After being released through a prisoner exchange, Scharnhorst proceeded to Königsberg, where he became an aide to General Anton Wilhelm von L'Estocq and dedicated himself to rebuilding the army. In the Battle of Eylau (February 7-8, 1807), which ended in a stalemate, Scharnhorst's exceptional operational guidance earned him the prestigious Pour le Mérite military order. The Treaty of Tilsit on July 7, 1807, brought peace between Prussia and France. Following the treaty, Scharnhorst was promoted to major general and appointed chairman of the military reorganization committee, allowing him to embark on comprehensive military reforms. Officers who shared his vision, such as Gneisenau, Boyen, and Grolman, were appointed to the committee, with Clausewitz joining in 1808.

Scharnhorst immediately began studying the causes of the defeat at Jena-Auerstedt. He concluded that the difference in military power between the French and German armies was fundamentally a matter of organizational quality and command and control. Napoleon Bonaparte's brilliant leadership and the French army's flexible military structure had led to their victories. To counter this, a radical overhaul of the Prussian army was essential.

2.4. Major Military Reforms

Scharnhorst's reforms were extensive and aimed at transforming Prussia's military and, consequently, its society.

2.4.2. Human Resources and Training Reforms

Scharnhorst's reforms also profoundly impacted human resources and training within the Prussian military, leading to significant social transformations. He abolished the mercenary system, laying the groundwork for universal conscription. While universal conscription was officially introduced in 1808, its actual implementation, including the widespread conscription of citizens, did not fully occur until 1813, when war with France resumed.

Crucially, his reforms restricted the use of corporal punishment to only the most egregious cases of insubordination, a progressive step toward humane treatment of soldiers. He also established promotion based on merit, breaking with the old system of aristocratic privilege. Scharnhorst actively recruited officers from among commoners, particularly the bourgeoisie. This initiative not only addressed the increased demand for officers created by the deployment of staff officers to divisions but also, more importantly, encouraged greater participation of common citizens in the military. In a Prussian society where direct political participation for commoners was limited, the military, with its growing influence on state affairs, became an attractive career path. In 1810, Scharnhorst further expanded access to military education by transforming the Army Officer School into a full-fledged War Academy, making admission more inclusive. These human resources reforms collectively advanced social equality and democratic principles within the military by opening career opportunities to individuals based on talent rather than birth.

2.5. Obstacles to Reform and Temporary Retirement

Scharnhorst's ambitious reforms, however, drew the suspicion of Napoleon. Fearing Napoleon's displeasure, King Frederick William III repeatedly ordered Scharnhorst to suspend or cancel the recommended reforms. In 1811, as France prepared for the Russian campaign, Scharnhorst traveled to Saint Petersburg to negotiate an alliance between Russia and Prussia. However, before his return, King Frederick William III succumbed to Napoleon's threats and decided to ally with France. Disillusioned by this turn of events, Scharnhorst and other reformist officers, including Gneisenau, resigned from the Prussian army. Some went into exile in Silesia, while others joined the Russian military. During this period of temporary retirement, Scharnhorst wrote and published a work on firearms titled "On the Effect of Firearms" (Über die Wirkung des Feuergewehrs^German, 1813).

3.1. Return to Service and the 1813 Campaign

In 1813, following Napoleon's disastrous retreat from Moscow, the call to arms for Prussia's new national army was sounded, and Scharnhorst was recalled to the King's headquarters. He declined a higher position but accepted the role of Chief of Staff to Field Marshal Blücher, in whom he had complete confidence regarding his vigor, energy, and influence over the young soldiers. Recognizing Scharnhorst's capabilities, the Russian Prince Wittgenstein requested his temporary assignment as his own chief of staff, to which Blücher agreed.

Prussia's initial engagement in the Wars of Liberation, the Battle of Lützen (or Gross-Görschen) on May 2, 1813, resulted in a Prussian defeat. However, this defeat differed significantly from Napoleon's previous decisive victories. The French army, largely composed of teenage conscripts by 1813 and no longer the dominant military force it had been before 1807, suffered substantial casualties. Furthermore, a severe shortage of cavalry prevented them from effectively pursuing the retreating Prussians, rendering it an incomplete victory for Napoleon.

3.2. Death

During the Battle of Lützen, Scharnhorst sustained a wound to his leg. While not initially grave, the injury was severely aggravated by the arduous fatigues of the subsequent retreat toward Dresden. His condition worsened, and he ultimately succumbed to sepsis on June 28, 1813, in Prague. He had traveled to Prague to engage in diplomatic efforts with Schwarzenberg and Radetzky to secure the armed intervention of Austria in the war.

Shortly before his death, he had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant general. In his memory, King Frederick William III commissioned a statue by Christian Daniel Rauch in Berlin. Scharnhorst was buried at the Invalidenfriedhof cemetery in Berlin. After his death, Gneisenau and Clausewitz jointly drafted a eulogy, but the government initially prohibited its public release, arguing that his accomplishments were not yet fully evaluated. Gneisenau vehemently protested until its publication was permitted.

4.1. Contributions to Military Theory and Practice

Gerhard von Scharnhorst is widely regarded as the principal architect of the modern General Staff system. His contributions as a military theorist and educator were pivotal; he mentored a generation of exceptional officers, including Clausewitz and Grolman, who carried forward his vision. Scharnhorst played a decisive role in the fundamental reconstruction of Prussian military power, transforming it from an outdated mercenary force into a modern, national army. Although his direct command of the General Staff during wartime was brief, his strategic concepts and operational plans during the Wars of Liberation were bold and ultimately adopted and built upon by his successor, Gneisenau. His insights into the nature of warfare and the necessity of a national army, drawn from his analysis of the French Revolutionary Wars, established a new paradigm for military organization and strategy that extended far beyond Prussia.

4.2. Historical Assessment

Contemporaries and later historians have offered objective assessments of Scharnhorst's character, leadership, and achievements. Clausewitz, for example, noted that Scharnhorst's demeanor was far from that of a typical soldier. Among the fastidious Prussian officers, he appeared indifferent to his appearance, often seeming disheveled. In contrast to the often boorish and arrogant aristocratic officers, Scharnhorst was described as intellectual and quiet, often exuding a melancholic aura. His soft-spoken manner, coupled with a Hanoverian accent, led some to perceive him as a philosopher rather than a military man.

Despite his unassuming outward appearance, Scharnhorst possessed significant human appeal. As an instructor, he was known for his supportive and caring approach to young officers. During his tenure as Chief of Staff, he consistently promoted talented individuals regardless of their social background, earning deep respect from all who served under him. Clausewitz held Scharnhorst in such high esteem that he referred to him as his "second father," while Gneisenau, who continued and completed Scharnhorst's work, humbly declared himself merely his "Peter" (referring to Peter, the chief disciple of Jesus Christ). This commitment to fostering talent irrespective of social background and promoting equitable opportunities within the military stands as a testament to his progressive leadership.

4.3. Namesakes and Continuing Influence

Scharnhorst's name has been honored in various ways, reflecting his enduring legacy in military history. Several naval vessels have borne his name:

• SMS Scharnhorst, a German armored cruiser launched in 1906, which saw service during World War I.
• Scharnhorst, a German battleship launched in 1936, the lead ship of the Scharnhorst class during World War II, which also included the Gneisenau.
• The Scharnhorst (F 213), originally the 1943 British sloop HMS Mermaid, transferred to West Germany in 1959 as an educational frigate (Type 138).

Other military entities and places named after him include:

• Infantry Division Scharnhorst, a German infantry division formed in 1945, among the last new Wehrmacht formations of World War II.
• The Scharnhorst Order, the highest military order of the former East Germany's National People's Army (NVA).
• Numerous streets in German cities, such as Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, and Cologne, among others.

Scharnhorst's influence extended to subsequent military leaders. General Hans von Seeckt, a key figure in the Weimar Republic's German Army, has been compared to Scharnhorst, particularly for his role in preparing the German Army for eventual rearming despite the severe limitations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Seeckt adapted secret doctrines and maintained the structure of a German General Staff, contributing to the unparalleled successes of the German Army in the early campaigns of World War II (1939-1940). Field Marshal August von Mackensen and Winston Churchill both subscribed to the theory that von Seeckt was instrumental in Germany's rapid return to prominence in the military world, echoing Scharnhorst's earlier fundamental reconstruction of the Prussian military after its defeat.

5.1. Family and Private Aspects

Gerhard von Scharnhorst was married to Clara Schmalz, who was the sister of Theodor Schmalz, the first director of Berlin University. While his public life was dominated by his military career and reforms, his writings served as a significant source of income for his family. Accounts from contemporaries like Clausewitz describe Scharnhorst's personal demeanor as intellectual and quiet, often appearing melancholic. Despite a perceived lack of conventional military bearing, he was known for his kindness and supportive nature, particularly as a teacher and mentor to younger officers, which fostered deep respect and loyalty among those close to him.