Frederick Augustus I of Saxony

2.1. Birth, Childhood, and Education

Frederick Augustus I was born on December 23, 1750, in Dresden, the capital of Saxony. He was the second son, but the eldest to survive, of Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony, and Maria Antonia Walpurgis of Bavaria, a princess of the House of Wittelsbach and daughter of Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor. Through his paternal lineage, he was descended from two former kings of Poland, and through his mother, he traced his ancestry to Siemowit, a semi-legendary early duke of Poland from the Piast dynasty. Details regarding his specific childhood and educational experiences are sparse in historical records, but his early life was shaped by the sudden death of his father.

2.2. Regency and Early Rule as Elector

In 1763, Frederick Augustus's father died of smallpox, just two months after inheriting the Electorate of Saxony from his own father, Augustus III of Poland. As Frederick Augustus was underage at the time, his mother, Maria Antonia Walpurgis, served as regent until 1768. During this period, his uncle, Prince Francis Xavier, functioned as his representative. It was during this regency, in 1765, that his representative ceded the Polish throne to Stanisław August Poniatowski. Frederick Augustus succeeded to the title of Elector of Saxony as Frederick Augustus III in 1763.

3.1. Polish Throne Succession

Frederick Augustus's three predecessors as Elector of Saxony had also been kings of Poland. However, due to his young age, he was not considered eligible for the Polish throne during the 1764 Polish-Lithuanian royal election. Later, when the Constitution of 3 May 1791 was ratified by the Polish Sejm, Frederick Augustus was explicitly named as the successor to King Stanisław II August. Article VII of this constitution further stipulated that the head of the Saxon Royal House would be the hereditary heir to the Polish throne. Despite this significant offer, Frederick Augustus declined to accept the crown upon Stanisław's death in 1798. His refusal stemmed from a deep-seated fear of becoming entangled in the ongoing disputes with the powerful neighboring empires of Austria, Prussia, and the Russian Empire, which had already initiated the partitions of Poland in 1772. By 1795, a full partition of Poland among these powers had already taken place, rendering the title largely nominal.

3.2. Foreign Policy and French Revolutionary Wars

Frederick Augustus sought to maintain Saxony's neutrality in the increasingly volatile European landscape. In August 1791, he hosted a significant meeting at Pillnitz Castle with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia. This gathering resulted in the Declaration of Pillnitz, a statement intended to offer support for the French monarchy in the face of the burgeoning French Revolution. The declaration warned of potential military action against the French revolutionary government, which inadvertently provided the French with justification to declare war on Austria in April 1792. Notably, Frederick Augustus himself did not sign the Declaration.

Saxony initially wished to remain disengaged from the defensive alliance against France that was forming between Austria and Prussia. Nevertheless, a declaration of a `Reichskrieg` (Imperial War) issued by the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire in March 1793 obligated Frederick Augustus to participate. However, Saxony's commitment to the coalition was tenuous. In April 1795, concern arose in Saxony when Prussia unexpectedly concluded a separate peace with France, a move that also facilitated the Third Partition of Poland. Saxony itself withdrew from the anti-French coalition in August 1796 after French forces advanced eastward into German territories, and additional conditions for the Holy Roman Empire to conclude a separate peace were agreed upon.

Both the peace agreement with France and Saxony's participation in the Second Congress of Rastatt in 1797 underscored Frederick Augustus's adherence to the conventional constitutional principles of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress of Rastatt aimed to authorize the cession of territories on the left bank of the Rhine River to France in exchange for compensation for the relinquishing rulers. However, at Rastatt and again in 1803 during the issuance of the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss (Final Report of the Imperial Delegation), which outlined the new order of the Empire, Saxony refused to agree to territorial adjustments. These adjustments were primarily designed to benefit other German states such as Bavaria, Prussia, Württemberg, and Baden, rather than reflecting a broader imperial interest.

4.1. Alliance with Napoleon and Elevation to King

Frederick Augustus was hesitant to join the newly formed Confederation of the Rhine, which eventually led to the final dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. He also remained reserved about Prussia's proposal for a North German empire, in which Saxony was intended to be raised to a kingdom. However, the escalating conflict forced his hand. In September 1806, following the Berlin Ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of French troops from the left bank of the Rhine, Napoleon advanced into Thuringia. At this critical juncture, Frederick Augustus allied with Prussia. This alliance, however, proved disastrous. At the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on October 14, 1806, Napoleon inflicted a devastating defeat on the combined Prusso-Saxon forces.

With the Prussian government and army in headlong retreat eastward, Frederick Augustus found himself isolated and without information regarding Prussian intentions, while Napoleon's troops were poised to occupy Saxony. He was compelled to seek peace with Napoleon. On December 11, 1806, a treaty was signed in Poznań by representatives of both sides. Under the terms of this Treaty of Poznań, Saxony was forced to join the Confederation of the Rhine and cede parts of Thuringia to the recently organized Kingdom of Westphalia. In compensation, Saxony received the area around Cottbus and, more significantly, was elevated to the status of a kingdom on December 20, 1806, alongside other Confederation states like Bavaria and Württemberg.

4.2. Duchy of Warsaw Administration

Following the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, which were concluded between Napoleon and King Frederick William III of Prussia and Tsar Alexander I of Russia, Frederick Augustus was named Grand Duke of Warsaw. Although he had previously declined the Polish throne in 1795, he could not refuse this second offer of a Polish title from Napoleon.

Article V of the Constitution of the Duchy of Warsaw, dictated by Napoleon to Saxony, formally linked the Duchy of Warsaw hereditarily to the Royal House of Saxony, building upon the Polish Constitution of 1791. Geopolitically, the Duchy of Warsaw encompassed territories from the second and third Prussian partitions of 1795. Exceptions included Gdańsk, which was made into the Free City of Danzig under joint French and Saxon protection, and the district around Białystok, which was ceded to Russia. The territory acquired from Prussia included parts of the former Prussian provinces of New East Prussia, Southern Prussia, New Silesia, and West Prussia, along with the area along the Noteć river and the "Land of Chełmno." Initially, the Duchy covered an area of approximately 40 K mile^{2 (104.00 K km2)} and had a population of about 2.6 million people, the majority of whom were Poles.

In 1809, during the War of the Fifth Coalition, Austrian forces attempted to seize the Duchy but were successfully repelled by Polish-Saxon troops. Consequently, Austria was compelled to cede to the Duchy of Warsaw several Polish regions that had been absorbed by Austria up to 1795, including the historic Polish royal city of Kraków. In July 1812, Frederick Augustus ratified a proclamation by the Sejm of the Duchy of Warsaw that formally restored the Kingdom of Poland, though Napoleon lodged a protest against this action.

4.3. War of Liberation and Capture

In 1813, during the German Campaign of 1813, Saxony found itself in an exceptionally precarious position. The country remained firmly under Napoleon's control and had become the central battleground of the war. By the autumn of 1813, at the outset of the Battle of Leipzig (also known as the Battle of Nations), Saxony, with its native population of about 2 million, had nearly a million foreign soldiers brought onto its territories. Napoleon openly threatened to treat Saxony as enemy territory if Frederick Augustus switched sides, severely limiting the King's room for maneuver. Frederick Augustus was also keenly aware of Prussia's abandonment of him in 1806, which made him reluctant to make a hasty decision that could jeopardize his country's well-being.

In this difficult situation, the King cautiously attempted to enter into an alliance with the Sixth Coalition in 1813, without overtly breaking with Napoleon. As Prussian and Russian troops advanced into Saxony in the spring, Frederick Augustus initially moved south to avoid direct confrontation and secretly pursued an alliance with Austria from Regensburg. The Saxon-Austrian Pact was concluded on April 20, and the King informed his Prussian and Russian allies. Napoleon, however, became aware of these diplomatic maneuvers and, after defeating the Prusso-Russian forces at the Battle of Lützen on May 2, urgently summoned Frederick Augustus back to Saxony. Facing an ultimatum, and with no prospect of concrete assistance from Austria after the defeat of the Prussian-Russian coalition, which was now sending peace overtures to France, Frederick Augustus felt he had no choice but to comply.

Frederick Augustus's decision provided little relief for Saxony. Napoleon, angered by the King's near defection and reliant on the full mobilization of all available forces against the Coalition, harshly demanded Saxony's complete resources. The country endured immense suffering due to the shifting fortunes of war, continuous troop movements, and extensive quartering. By the end of August, the Allies again failed to decisively defeat Napoleon at the Battle of Dresden. Saxony consequently remained the principal theater of war, with Dresden serving as the midpoint for French army movements. It was not until September 9 in Teplice (now in the Czech Republic) that Austria formally concluded its alliance with Prussia and Russia. In September, as Napoleon's troops in Saxony began to retreat before the expanded Coalition, the first defections within the Royal Saxon Army to the Allies began.

Frederick Augustus remained distrustful of Prussia, recalling the events of spring 1813, and was likely disappointed by Austria's initial reluctance to immediately join the Coalition, especially while Saxony was exposed to French domination. Thus, he chose not to break with Napoleon. At the decisive Battle of Leipzig (Battle of Nations) in October 1813, both Saxon and Polish troops fought on Napoleon's side. However, as the French faced apparent defeat, larger Saxon troop formations defected to the Coalition during the battle, while the Polish troops were largely annihilated. Following Napoleon's defeat, Frederick Augustus was captured by Russian Emperor Alexander I and taken to Friedrichsfelde near Berlin, where he was held under Russian-Prussian custody in the name of a "General Government of High Allied Powers."

5.1. Negotiations and Territorial Losses

At the deliberations of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and 1815, Frederick Augustus's position was severely compromised by his country's challenging geographic location, the fluctuating course of the war, a lack of consistent assistance from Austria, and his own political vacillations. The Prussian-Russian alliance, in particular, had harbored ambitions detrimental to Saxony and Poland from the outset. Even before Prussia declared war on France on March 17, 1813, it had formalized an alliance with Russia, to the detriment of Saxony and Poland, through the Treaty of Kalisz on February 22. This agreement stipulated that the Duchy of Warsaw would predominantly fall under Russian rule, while Prussia would be compensated for its relinquished Polish territories with the annexation of Saxon territory. Prussia's desire for the economically and culturally more developed territories of Saxony stemmed from an old ambition of annexation that Frederick II had articulated in his political testament of 1752 and had previously attempted to realize during the Seven Years' War; it was not merely a consequence of overcoming Napoleonic rule.

After the Battle of Leipzig, the Prussian-Russian alliance showed no interest in an alliance with the Saxon king in the broader struggle against Napoleon, despite Frederick Augustus's offers of support. Instead, the King was held captive and brought to Friedrichsfelde near Berlin, placed under Russian-Prussian custody. The forceful approach of Prussian minister Baron von Stein, rather than the administration by Russian Prince Repnin (until November 1814) or the subsequent Prussian occupation (lasting until June 1815), was primarily responsible for the low morale prevalent in Saxony at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

As a punitive measure for his perceived loyalty to Napoleon, Frederick Augustus was denied participation at the Congress of Vienna, unlike representatives from France. This treatment was widely seen as a tactic by Prussia and Russia to execute their annexation plans agreed upon in Kalisz. The fact that Saxony was not completely dismembered can be attributed to the apprehension of Austria and France regarding an excessively strengthened Prussia. The Saxon question threatened to derail the entire Congress, leading the allies, with the Tsar's mediation, to finally agree to divide Saxony on January 7, 1815.

After his release from Prussian imprisonment in February 1815, Frederick Augustus initially delayed his agreement to the division of his country. However, left with no alternative, he eventually conceded. On May 18, he consented to the peace treaty presented to him by Prussia and Russia. With the signing of the treaty on May 21, 1815, a significant portion-57% of Saxon territory and 42% of the Saxon population-was ceded to Prussia.

This cession resulted in territories that had been an integral part of the Saxon landscape for centuries becoming entirely foreign. Many were absorbed into artificially created administrative regions. For instance, Wittenberg, the historic capital of the Saxon Electoral State during the Holy Roman Empire and site of the national university made famous by Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon, was amalgamated with the Prussian University of Halle in 1817. Similarly, Torgau, the birthplace and residence of Frederick the Wise, was incorporated into one of Prussia's new provincial structures, the Province of Saxony. Lower Lusatia, which, like Upper Lusatia, had maintained its constitutional autonomy under Saxon rule, was annexed into the Province of Brandenburg and consequently ceased to exist as an independent state. Upper Lusatia itself was arbitrarily divided: the portion assigned to Prussia, including Görlitz, was added to the Province of Silesia, and these areas also lost their constitutional autonomy.

5.2. Dissolution of the Duchy of Warsaw

On May 22, 1815, Frederick Augustus formally abdicated as the ruler of the Duchy of Warsaw. The territory of the Duchy was primarily annexed by the Russian Empire, with smaller portions going to Prussia and Austria. In the area assigned to Russia, a new entity, the Congress Kingdom of Poland, was established. This kingdom was designed to be joined in a hereditary union with the Russian throne, effectively placing it under Russian imperial control. The historic royal city of Kraków was excluded from this new kingdom and became a separate entity, the Republic of Kraków. Although initially enjoying internal autonomy, this self-governance was abolished in 1831 following the Polish Uprising.

6.1. Return to Saxony and Popular Reception

Frederick Augustus's return to Saxony in July 1815 was met with an overwhelmingly enthusiastic reception across the entire land. This popular embrace extended even from the newly ceded territories, where the populace regarded their new Prussian rulers with coolness, quickly coining the phrase "mandatory-Prussian" to describe their imposed allegiance. This sentiment was dramatically underscored by events such as a revolt in Liège Province at the end of April, where the majority of Saxon Army regiments had been stationed since early 1815. When Prussian King Frederick William III ordered Generalfeldmarschall Blücher to discharge soldiers originating from the annexed territories, the Saxon soldiers, whose departure had not yet been finalized by Frederick Augustus's representatives, rioted. Blücher was forced to flee the city and could only suppress the uprising by calling in additional Prussian troops. Public opinion throughout Saxony decisively favored Frederick Augustus upon his return, viewing Prussian policies as unduly ruthless against both the country and its monarch, and perceiving the distribution of post-War of Liberation rewards as driven by clear self-interest from Berlin.

6.2. Post-War Reconstruction and Internal Policies

The final twelve years of Frederick Augustus's reign were, for the most part, characterized by relative tranquility. The King, known for his conservative disposition, which had previously manifested in an unwavering loyalty to Saxon interests in foreign policy until 1806, became even more entrenched in his conservatism after experiencing Napoleonic hegemony. His efforts for national reconstruction following the significant territorial losses focused primarily on economic development, legal reforms, and the promotion of arts and sciences. During his rule, Saxony experienced substantial advancements in industrialization, and major cities like Dresden and Leipzig became significant centers of academic and intellectual life in Germany.

6.3. Final Years and Succession

Despite the advancements in other areas, Frederick Augustus I achieved little in terms of political reform. Until his death in 1827, which coincidentally occurred on the anniversary of Napoleon's death, the constitutional framework of the Saxon state remained largely unchanged. The King notably avoided such reforms, partly out of respect for the traditional rights of the remaining Lusatian upper classes. Consequently, the widespread desire for a transformation of the existing political system to incorporate a genuine legislature largely went unfulfilled.

Despite these political shortcomings, admiration for the long-reigning monarch, who had overseen Saxony's destiny for over half a century, scarcely diminished. He had earned the epithet "The Just" during his lifetime, reflecting his perceived fairness and dedication to his subjects. However, the resentment over the delayed economic and social restructuring of the country was ultimately inherited by his successor, his younger brother, King Anthony. Frederick Augustus I was entombed in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Dresden.

7.1. Marriage and Issue

Frederick Augustus I was married to Countess Palatine Amalie of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld, the sister of King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. The marriage ceremonies took place first by proxy in Mannheim on January 17, 1769, and subsequently in person in Dresden on January 29, 1769. During their marriage, Amalie bore four children, but only one daughter survived to adulthood:

• Stillborn child (1771)
• Stillborn child (1775)
• Maria Augusta Nepomucena Antonia Franziska Xaveria Aloysia (born Dresden, June 21, 1782 - died Dresden, March 14, 1863)
• Stillborn child (1797)

Frederick Augustus also had an illegitimate daughter from an affair with the daughter of a Jewish court financier in Dresden. Without any surviving legitimate male issue, Frederick Augustus was succeeded as King of Saxony by his younger brother, Anton.

8.1. Positive Reception

Frederick Augustus I earned the widespread epithet "The Just" (Der Gerechte_{Der Gerechte}^German), reflecting a popular perception of his commitment to the welfare and fair treatment of his subjects. His enduring efforts to restore the Polish state, despite ultimately failing to achieve full independence for Poland, deeply endeared him to the Polish people. He consistently focused on the reconstruction and development of Saxony, particularly after the extensive devastation wrought by the Napoleonic Wars.

Under his guidance, Saxony saw considerable progress in agricultural and commercial development, along with significant advancements in industrialization. He also initiated reforms in the legal system and actively promoted arts and sciences, contributing to the establishment of Dresden and Leipzig as prominent centers of academic and cultural excellence in Germany. These efforts fostered a period of rebuilding and cultural flourishing, stabilizing Saxony in a turbulent era and demonstrating his dedication to the material and intellectual well-being of his kingdom.

8.2. Criticism and Controversies

Despite his positive epithet and reconstruction efforts, Frederick Augustus I's reign was not without criticism, particularly concerning his political judgment and approach to reform. Historians often point to his political vacillation during the Napoleonic Wars as a significant controversy. His initial alliance with Prussia against Napoleon, followed by a coerced alliance with the French Emperor, and his subsequent wavering before ultimately fighting alongside Napoleon at Leipzig, highlight a difficult and at times indecisive foreign policy. This instability contributed to Saxony becoming a central battleground and suffering immense devastation.

Furthermore, his conservative political ideology led to significant delays in constitutional and political reforms. Unlike some other European states that adapted to the changing political climate post-Napoleonic Wars, Frederick Augustus made minimal alterations to the constitutional configuration of the Saxon state until his death. His reluctance to introduce a genuine legislature or modernize the political system, partly out of deference to the traditional rights of the Lusatian upper classes, is viewed critically from a perspective emphasizing democratic development and social progress. This delay in internal political modernization left his successor, King Anton, to face the accumulated resentment over the slow pace of economic and social rebuilding that might have been mitigated by earlier reforms.