1. Early Life and Education
Francis Otto Matthiessen's early life was shaped by his family's industrial background and his formative educational experiences across various institutions, culminating in his distinguished academic career.
1.1. Childhood and Family Background
Francis Otto Matthiessen was born in Pasadena, California, on February 19, 1902. He was the youngest of four children born to Frederick William Matthiessen (1868-1948) and Lucy Orne Pratt (1866). His paternal grandfather, also named Frederick William Matthiessen, was a notable industrial leader in zinc production and a successful manufacturer of clocks and machine tools. The elder Frederick William Matthiessen also served as the mayor of LaSalle, Illinois, for a decade. Francis's three older siblings were Frederick William (born 1894), George Dwight (born 1897), and Lucy Orne (born 1898). After his parents' separation, Francis moved with his mother to his paternal grandparents' home in LaSalle, Illinois, where he spent part of his childhood.
1.2. Education
Matthiessen attended the Polytechnic School in Pasadena for his early education. He completed his secondary education at Hackley School in Tarrytown, New York. In 1923, he graduated from Yale University, where he held significant positions as the managing editor of the Yale Daily News and editor of the Yale Literary Magazine. He was also a member of the prestigious secret society Skull and Bones. As the recipient of Yale's DeForest Prize, Matthiessen delivered an oration titled "Servants of the Devil," in which he sharply criticized Yale's administration as an "autocracy, ruled by a Corporation out of touch with college life and allied with big business." In his final year as an undergraduate, he was awarded the Alpheus Henry Snow Prize, given to the senior who best exemplified intellectual achievement, character, and personality, inspiring high scholarship among classmates.
Following his graduation from Yale, Matthiessen became a Rhodes Scholar, pursuing his studies at Oxford University, where he earned a B.Litt. degree in 1925. He then quickly completed his graduate studies at Harvard University, receiving an M.A. in 1926 and a Ph.D. in 1927. After earning his doctorate, Matthiessen taught at Yale for two years before commencing his distinguished teaching career at Harvard.
2. Scholarly Work and Literary Criticism
Matthiessen's scholarly career at Harvard University was marked by his profound impact on American literature and the establishment of American studies as a recognized academic discipline. He served as a literary critic and chaired Harvard's undergraduate program in history and literature.
2.1. Major Works and Literary Criticism
Matthiessen authored and edited seminal works of scholarship focusing on a diverse range of American literary figures, including T. S. Eliot, Ralph Waldo Emerson, the James family (Alice James, Henry James, Henry James Sr., and William James), Sarah Orne Jewett, Sinclair Lewis, Herman Melville, Henry David Thoreau, and Walt Whitman.
His most renowned book, American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman, published in 1941, stands as a landmark study. The work explores the flourishing literary culture in the mid-19th century United States, particularly focusing on the contributions of Emerson, Thoreau, Melville, Whitman, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Matthiessen's analysis primarily centered on the period from approximately 1850 to 1855, during which these authors, with the exception of Emerson, published works that would later be considered their masterpieces. These include Melville's Moby-Dick, multiple editions of Whitman's Leaves of Grass, Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables, and Thoreau's Walden. The profound influence of this book on subsequent literary history and criticism led to the common adoption of "American Renaissance" to describe this period in American literature.
Initially, Matthiessen had intended to include Edgar Allan Poe in American Renaissance, but he ultimately found that Poe's work did not align with the thematic framework of the book. Although he later contributed a chapter on Poe to the Literary History of the United States (LHUS, 1948), some editors noted a perceived lack of Matthiessen's characteristic brilliance and subtlety in that particular essay. Critics have suggested that his difficulty in connecting Poe's work with the themes of the American Renaissance writers resulted in a "markedly old-fashioned" chapter.
In 1950, Matthiessen edited The Oxford Book of American Verse, a significant anthology of American poetry. This collection played a crucial role in promoting American modernist poetry throughout the 1950s and 1960s.
2.2. Scholarly Influence
Matthiessen is widely recognized as one of the earliest and most influential scholars involved in the establishment and development of American studies as a distinct academic discipline. His work, particularly American Renaissance, is considered foundational to the field, shaping how subsequent generations of scholars approached the study of American literature and culture. His critical interpretations and comprehensive analyses left an enduring mark on literary criticism and scholarship.
2.3. Other Academic Contributions
Beyond his primary scholarly output, Matthiessen was actively involved in several other academic initiatives. He was one of the earliest scholars associated with the Salzburg Global Seminar. In July 1947, he delivered the inaugural lecture for the seminar, emphasizing the importance of cultural communication in an age shaped by difficult historical experiences. He stated, "Our age has had no escape from an awareness of history. Much of that history has been hard and full of suffering. But now we have the luxury of an historical awareness of another sort, of an occasion not of anxiety but of promise. We may speak without exaggeration of this occasion as historic, since we have come here to enact anew the chief function of culture and humanism, to bring man again into communication with man."
In 1948, Matthiessen co-founded the Kenyon School of English alongside prominent literary figures John Crowe Ransom and Lionel Trilling, further demonstrating his commitment to the advancement of literary education and scholarship.
3. Political Activism
Matthiessen was deeply committed to progressive politics, openly embracing socialism and actively supporting various liberal causes during a period of intense political scrutiny in the United States.
3.1. Political Stance and Activism
Matthiessen's political convictions were firmly rooted in left-wing and socialist ideologies. Despite his financial security, he demonstrated his commitment to these beliefs by donating a substantial inheritance, totaling nearly 15.00 K USD, to his friend, the Marxist economist Paul Sweezy, in the late 1940s. Sweezy utilized these funds to establish a new journal, which would eventually become the influential Monthly Review.
On the Harvard University campus, Matthiessen was a prominent and active supporter of progressive causes. In May 1940, he was elected president of the Harvard Teachers Union, an affiliate of the American Federation of Labor. The Harvard Crimson reported on his inaugural address, where Matthiessen quoted the union's constitution, articulating their purpose: "In affiliating with the organized labor movement, we express our desire to contribute to and receive support from this powerful progressive force; to reduce the segregation of teachers from the rest of the workers ...and increase thereby the sense of common purpose among them; and in particular to cooperate in this field in the advancement of education and resistance to all reaction."
In 1948, Matthiessen further demonstrated his political alignment by seconding the nomination of Henry A. Wallace, the Progressive Party presidential candidate, at the party's convention in Philadelphia.
3.2. McCarthyism and Political Pressure
Matthiessen's outspoken political views made him a target during the escalating Red Scare and the surveillance of left-wing academics. He was publicly identified as an activist involved in Boston-area "Communist front groups" by Herbert Philbrick, a former counterspy. This targeting intensified the political pressure on Matthiessen.
In an article subsection titled "Dupes and Fellow Travelers Dress Up Communist Fronts" in the April 4, 1949, edition of Life magazine, Matthiessen was pictured among fifty prominent academics, scientists, clergy, and writers. This group, which also included figures like Albert Einstein, Arthur Miller, Lillian Hellman, Langston Hughes, Norman Mailer, and fellow Harvard professors Kirtley Mather, Corliss Lamont, and Ralph Barton Perry, was implicitly associated with communist sympathies. The inquiries by the House Un-American Activities Committee into his political activities are widely considered to have been a significant contributing factor to his deteriorating mental state and eventual demise.
4. Personal Life and Identity
Known to his friends as "Matty," Francis Otto Matthiessen navigated his personal life, including his identity as a gay man, during a period when such identities were largely concealed in public and professional spheres.
4.1. Sexual Identity and Relationships
As a gay man in the 1930s and 1940s, Matthiessen chose to maintain a degree of privacy regarding his sexual identity within his professional career, though traces of homoerotic themes are discernible in some of his writings. Despite this discretion, Harvard University acknowledged in 2009 that Matthiessen "stands out as an unusual example of a gay man who lived his sexuality as an 'open secret' in the mid-20th century."
Matthiessen maintained a significant two-decade-long romantic relationship with the painter Russell Cheney, who was 20 years his senior. Cheney, like Matthiessen, came from a prominent business family, with the Cheneys being leading silk producers in America. In a 1925 letter to Cheney, Matthiessen expressed his trust in sharing the knowledge of their relationship with close friends, rather than the broader public. His commitment to Cheney was so profound that he sought the approval of his cohort in the Yale secret society Skull and Bones for their partnership. Throughout his teaching career at Harvard, Matthiessen maintained a residence in either Cambridge or Boston, but the couple frequently retreated to their shared cottage in Kittery, Maine. Russell Cheney passed away in July 1945 due to a heart attack.
4.2. Impact of Personal Life
The influence of Matthiessen's personal life and his relationship with Russell Cheney on his academic work has been a subject of scholarly discussion. Cheney is credited with encouraging Matthiessen's interest in the poet Walt Whitman, whose work often explored themes of comradeship and love. Consequently, some scholars have argued that American Renaissance was "the ultimate expression of Matthiessen's love for Cheney and a secret celebration of the gay artist." This perspective suggests that his personal identity and relationships subtly informed the thematic undercurrents of his critical analyses.
In 1978, a compilation of letters between Matthiessen and Cheney was published under the title Rat & the Devil: journal letters of F. O. Matthiessen and Russell Cheney. The title refers to the pseudonyms they used for each other, with Matthiessen being "Devil" and Cheney "Rat." In 1992, this collection was adapted into a stage play titled Devil & Rat in Love, written and directed by Michael Bonacci, which also served as a tribute to Bonacci's partner who had died the previous year.
5. Death
Francis Otto Matthiessen's life tragically ended by suicide in 1950, a culmination of personal struggles and intense external pressures.
5.1. Circumstances of Death
Matthiessen died by suicide on April 1, 1950, by jumping from a 12th-floor window of the Hotel Manger in Boston. He had a history of mental health challenges, having been hospitalized for a nervous breakdown in 1938-1939. The death of his long-term partner, Russell Cheney, in July 1945, from a heart attack, profoundly affected him. The evening before his death, Matthiessen spent time at the home of his friend and colleague, Kenneth Murdock, Harvard's Higginson Professor of English Literature.
In a note left in his hotel room, Matthiessen articulated his distress, stating, "I am depressed over world conditions. I am a Christian and a Socialist. I am against any order which interferes with that objective." He was buried at Springfield Cemetery in Springfield, Massachusetts.
5.2. Interpretations of Cause of Death
Commentators have extensively speculated on the various factors that contributed to Matthiessen's state of mind and his decision to end his life. A significant point of discussion revolves around the impact of the escalating Red Scare on his mental well-being. Matthiessen was indeed being targeted by anti-communist forces, which would soon be aggressively exploited by Senator Joseph McCarthy. Inquiries by the House Un-American Activities Committee into his political affiliations are widely considered to have been a contributing factor to his suicide. His inclusion in a Life magazine article on April 4, 1949, titled "Red Visitors Cause Rumpus," which pictured him among fifty prominent academics, scientists, clergy, and writers, underscored the public scrutiny he faced.
In 1958, Eric Jacobsen suggested that Matthiessen's death had been "hastened by forces whose activities earned for themselves the sobriquet un-American., which they sought so assiduously to fasten on others." However, in 1978, Harry Levin offered a more cautious perspective, noting only that "spokesmen for the Communist Party, to which he had never belonged, loudly signalized his suicide as a political gesture," implying that political groups might have exploited his death for their own narratives. While the exact interplay of personal grief, mental health struggles, and intense political persecution remains complex, the socio-political environment of the McCarthy era undoubtedly placed immense pressure on Matthiessen.
6. Legacy
Francis Otto Matthiessen's legacy endures through his foundational contributions to American literary criticism, his role in shaping academic disciplines, and the ongoing recognition of his life and work at Harvard University and beyond, particularly in the context of LGBTQ+ studies.
6.1. Scholarly Legacy
Matthiessen's contribution to the critical celebration of 19th-century American literature is widely regarded as formative and enduring. His magnum opus, American Renaissance, is considered a cornerstone of American literary scholarship, establishing a critical framework that continues to influence the study of the period. Along with several other pioneering scholars, he is credited with significantly contributing to the creation of American studies as a recognized academic discipline. His meticulous scholarship, insightful literary criticism, and commitment to interdisciplinary approaches laid the groundwork for future generations of scholars in these fields.
6.2. Commemoration at Harvard University
Harvard University has memorialized Matthiessen's stature and legacy within its community in several significant ways. He served as the first Senior Tutor at Eliot House, one of Harvard College's undergraduate residential houses. More than 70 years after his death, Matthiessen's former suite at Eliot House is preserved as the F. O. Matthiessen Room. This room houses his personal manuscripts and approximately 1,700 volumes from his personal library, which are available for scholarly research by permission. Eliot House also hosts an annual Matthiessen Dinner, featuring a guest speaker, to honor his memory and contributions.
In 2009, Harvard established an endowed chair in LGBT studies called the F. O. Matthiessen Visiting Professorship of Gender and Sexuality. Harvard President Drew Faust hailed this as "an important milestone" and "the first professorship of its kind in the country." The professorship was funded by a 1.50 M USD gift from members and supporters of the Harvard Gender and Sexuality Caucus. This visiting professorship reaffirms the university's appreciation for Matthiessen's continuing legacy as a storied scholar and teacher, particularly acknowledging his identity and its relevance to contemporary academic discourse on gender and sexuality.
Holders of the F. O. Matthiessen Visiting Professorship of Gender and Sexuality have included:
| Year | Professor |
|---|---|
| 2013 | Henry D. Abelove |
| 2014 | Gayle Rubin |
| 2016 | Robert Reid-Pharr |
| 2018 | Omise'eke Natasha Tinsley |
| 2020 | Mel Y. Chen |
| 2023 | C. Riley Snorton |
6.3. Cultural and Social Impact
Matthiessen's personal story, academic contributions, political activism, and early death had a lasting impact on a wide circle of scholars and writers. The sense of loss and the struggle to comprehend his suicide are reflected in fictional works, such as May Sarton's 1955 novel Faithful are the Wounds and Mark Merlis's 1994 novel American Studies, both of which feature central figures inspired by Matthiessen. His life and work continue to influence subsequent generations, particularly in the burgeoning field of LGBTQ+ studies, contributing to a broader cultural memory of his significant, yet complex, contributions to American intellectual life.