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Ernst Cassirer

Ernst Cassirer was a German Neo-Kantian philosopher known for his philosophy of culture, theory of symbolic forms, and staunch defense of Enlightenment ideals and liberal democracy.

1. Life

Ernst Cassirer's life spanned a period of immense intellectual and political upheaval in Europe, marked by his academic pursuits across Germany, his forced exile, and his continued philosophical contributions in various countries.

1.1. Early life and education

Born into a Jewish family on July 28, 1874, in Breslau, Silesia (modern-day southwest Poland), Cassirer completed his early education at Johannesgymnasium Breslau. His academic journey was extensive and multidisciplinary. From 1892 to 1896, he studied jurisprudence, Germanic philology, contemporary literary history, and philosophy at various esteemed institutions, including Friedrich Wilhelms Universität Berlin, Leipzig University, and Ruprecht Karls Universität Heidelberg. He also pursued philosophy and psychology at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.

His philosophical focus deepened when he moved to the University of Marburg in 1896, where he studied under the prominent Neo-Kantian philosophers Hermann Cohen and Paul Natorp, and mathematics under Friedrich Schottky. In 1899, he earned his doctorate with a dissertation titled `Descartes' Kritik der mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen ErkenntnisDescartes' Critique of Mathematical and Scientific KnowledgeGerman`, which analyzed René Descartes's views on mathematical and natural scientific knowledge. He completed his habilitation in 1906 at the University of Berlin with the dissertation `Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit: Erster BandThe Problem of Knowledge in Philosophy and Science in the Modern Age: Volume IGerman`. His habilitation thesis was reviewed by Wilhelm Dilthey and Alois Riehl.

1.2. Academic career in Germany

After completing his habilitation, Cassirer worked for many years as a `Privatdozentprivate lecturerGerman` at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, starting in 1903. During this period, he concentrated his studies on philosophy, science, and theoretical thought, and secured a faculty position at the University of Berlin in 1907 following his Kant interpretation in the second volume of The Problem of Knowledge. His work `Substanzbegriff und FunktionsbegriffSubstance and FunctionGerman` was also written during this time.

In 1919, Cassirer was appointed to the philosophy chair at the newly established University of Hamburg. His time in Hamburg proved to be highly formative for his philosophical development. He was deeply impressed by the Warburg Library for Cultural Studies (now the Warburg Institute), founded by the art historian Aby Warburg. Cassirer reportedly remarked, "This library is dangerous; I must avoid it, or I will have to shut myself in it for years." He visited Aby Warburg himself in 1923, who was then undergoing psychiatric treatment. Drawing extensively on the Warburg Library's resources, Cassirer delved into the studies of mythology and the Renaissance, publishing works such as `Konzeptformen im mythischen DenkenConcept Forms in Mythical ThoughtGerman` (1922) and `Sprache und MythosLanguage and MythGerman` (1925), which laid the groundwork for his seminal three-volume work, Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (1923, 1925, 1929). During his tenure in Hamburg, he also supervised the doctoral theses of notable students, including Joachim Ritter, Leo Strauss, and Hans Reichenbach.

1.3. Exile and later life

Cassirer's academic career in Germany was abruptly cut short by the rise of the Nazi regime. As a Jewish intellectual, he was forced to leave Germany on March 12, 1933, shortly after the Nazis came to power on January 30, 1933. This marked the beginning of his period of exile.

Initially, he taught for a couple of years at the University of Oxford in England, where he also interacted with Fritz Saxl, the first director of the Warburg Institute, which had relocated from Hamburg in 1934. He then became a professor at Gothenburg University in Sweden, where he also gained Swedish citizenship. However, as the influence of the Nazi regime expanded, Cassirer considered Sweden too unsafe and sought opportunities in the United States. He applied for a position at Harvard University but was rejected because he had declined a job offer from them some thirty years prior.

In 1941, he accepted a visiting professorship at Yale University, and later moved to Columbia University in New York City, where he lectured from 1943 until his death. Cassirer died of a heart attack in April 1945 in New York City. His funeral service was conducted by the young rabbi Arthur Hertzberg, who had been his student at Columbia. His grave is located in Westwood, New Jersey, in the Cedar Park Beth-El Cemeteries, within the graves of Congregation Habonim.

1.4. Family and personal connections

Ernst Cassirer came from a prominent German Jewish family that included several notable figures. His son, Heinz Cassirer, followed in his footsteps and also became a respected Kantian scholar. Other distinguished relatives included the neurologist Richard Cassirer, the publisher and gallery owner Bruno Cassirer, and the influential art dealer and editor Paul Cassirer. These family connections provided a rich intellectual and cultural background that may have influenced Ernst Cassirer's broad interests in art, culture, and philosophy.

2. Philosophical thought

Ernst Cassirer's philosophical thought evolved from his Neo-Kantian roots into a comprehensive philosophy of culture centered on the concept of symbolic forms.

2.1. Neo-Kantian foundations

Cassirer's philosophical journey began within the rigorous framework of the Marburg School of Neo-Kantianism, under the guidance of Hermann Cohen and Paul Natorp. This school emphasized a reinterpretation of Immanuel Kant's critical philosophy, focusing on the epistemological foundations of science and logic. Cassirer's early works, such as `Substanzbegriff und FunktionsbegriffSubstance and FunctionGerman`, clearly demonstrate this Marburg influence, particularly in their analysis of the development of scientific concepts and the foundations of mathematics.

However, Cassirer did not remain confined to the strict boundaries of the Marburg tradition. He critically expanded Kant's method of "critique of reason" into a "critique of culture." While initially aiming to provide an idealistic philosophy of science, he later diverged by extending the scope of epistemology beyond the logic and psychology of thought to encompass all forms of human culture. This expansion sought to understand the structure of consciousness not just in scientific thought but also in mythical consciousness, thereby moving from the study of natural science to that of the human and cultural sciences. His work distinguished him from the Marburg school by pushing the boundaries of traditional epistemology.

2.2. Theory of symbolic forms

Central to Cassirer's philosophy is his groundbreaking concept of "symbolic forms," a framework meticulously developed in his magnum opus, Philosophy of Symbolic Forms. He proposed that humans are not merely "rational animals" but fundamentally "symbolic animals." While other animals perceive their world through instincts and direct sensory perception, humans uniquely create and inhabit a universe of symbolic meanings. This capacity for symbolism is what distinguishes human experience and defines human culture.

Cassirer's theory posits that symbolic forms are the fundamental ways in which human consciousness organizes and expresses its experience of reality. These forms include, but are not limited to, language, myth, religion, art, and science. He argued that these various symbolic systems are not just tools for understanding the world but are actively constitutive of the human world itself. For instance, natural language serves as the basis from which more refined symbolic systems like science and mathematics evolve, just as art and religion develop from myth. Symbolic forms structure the perception of reality and enable humans to conceptualize realities that do not physically exist, such as a utopia, and to transform shared cultural forms. This entire theoretical foundation is rooted in Kant's transcendental idealism, where Cassirer posited that humans cannot fully know the "actual world," but they can change the "forms" through which they perceive and interact with it.

2.3. Philosophy of culture and human sciences

Cassirer's theory of symbolic forms naturally led to his broader development of a comprehensive philosophy of culture. He extended traditional epistemology into a "logic of the cultural sciences," seeking to understand how objective validity could be achieved not only in the natural sciences but also in the humanities and other cultural phenomena. He argued that just as inter-subjective objective validity in the natural sciences derives from universal laws of nature, an analogous type of inter-subjective objective validity exists in the cultural sciences.

This pursuit culminated in works like `Zur Logik der KulturwissenschaftenThe Logic of the Cultural SciencesGerman` (1942), where he posited that validity can be found in practical, cultural, moral, and aesthetic phenomena. His philosophical anthropology, particularly articulated in `An Essay on Man` (1944), aimed to answer the fundamental humanistic question, "What is man?" By defining humans as "symbolic animals," Cassirer sought to grasp the essence of the human spirit through its diverse manifestations across different symbolic forms. He believed that human culture is fundamentally understood through these symbolic dimensions, which encompass not only academic and scientific thought but also everyday communication, personal insights, and expressions.

3. Major works and contributions

Ernst Cassirer's extensive body of work spans various fields, from the history of philosophy and science to political thought, establishing him as a polymath and a significant figure in 20th-century philosophy.

3.1. History of philosophy and science

Cassirer made substantial contributions to the history of modern thought, particularly focusing on epistemology from the Renaissance to Immanuel Kant. His early doctoral work, `Descartes' Kritik der mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen ErkenntnisDescartes' Critique of Mathematical and Scientific KnowledgeGerman` (1899), examined the foundations of modern science. This was followed by `Leibniz' System in its Scientific Foundations` (1902), which showcased his deep understanding of 17th-century rationalism.

His monumental work, `Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren ZeitThe Problem of Knowledge in Philosophy and Science in the Modern AgeGerman` (1906-1920), spanned multiple volumes, tracing the evolution of epistemological problems from medieval thought to modern philosophy. In `Individuum und Kosmos in der Philosophie der RenaissanceThe Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance PhilosophyGerman` (1927), Cassirer interpreted the Scientific Revolution as a "Platonic" application of mathematics to nature, influencing prominent historians of science such as E. A. Burtt, E. J. Dijksterhuis, and Alexandre Koyré.

3.2. Philosophy of physics and mathematics

Cassirer also dedicated significant attention to the philosophical implications of scientific developments, particularly in physics and mathematics. In `Substanzbegriff und FunktionsbegriffSubstance and FunctionGerman` (1910), he analyzed the conceptual shift in late 19th-century physics from a reliance on substance concepts (observable entities) to function concepts (relationships described by mathematical equations), especially in the context of relativity theory and the foundations of mathematics. He argued that the modern scientific understanding relies on functional descriptions rather than static entities.

His work `Einstein's Theory of Relativity` (1921) defended the assertion that modern physics, despite its revolutionary nature, continued to support a Neo-Kantian conception of knowledge, emphasizing the constructive role of the human mind in shaping scientific understanding. Later, he explored the philosophical challenges posed by quantum mechanics in `Determinismus und Indeterminismus in der modernen PhysikDeterminism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics: Historical and Systematic Studies of the Problem of CausalityGerman` (1936), delving into the complex debate surrounding causality in the new physics.

3.3. Engagement with political philosophy

Cassirer's philosophical engagement extended critically into political thought, particularly in response to the rise of totalitarianism in the 20th century. His last major work, `The Myth of the State` (1946), published posthumously, was a profound attempt to understand the intellectual origins of Nazi Germany. In this book, Cassirer argued that totalitarian regimes represent a dangerous regression to an unchecked power of myth, where irrational forces dominate over reason. He traced the historical struggle between logos and mythos in Greek thought, examining classical political theories from Plato's Republic, medieval theories of the state, and the ideas of Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Carlyle's writings on hero worship, the racial theories of Arthur de Gobineau, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. He praised ancient Greek thinkers like Thucydides for attempting to eliminate "fabulous" elements from historical accounts and the Milesian school for initiating rational thought through their definition of "origin" (`ἀρχήarchēGreek, Ancient`). Cassirer criticized figures like Martin Heidegger for their "passive acquiescence" to the resurgence of myth in German politics of the 1930s, arguing that departing from Edmund Husserl's belief in an objective, logical basis for philosophy weakened philosophy's ability to resist such irrational forces.

Earlier, in `Die Philosophie der AufklärungThe Philosophy of the EnlightenmentGerman` (1932), Cassirer celebrated the Enlightenment era as a period when reason's self-realization led to human liberation. He underscored his advocacy for liberal democratic values, seeing them as direct descendants of Enlightenment ideals. However, critics like Mazlish noted that in this work, Cassirer focused exclusively on ideas, potentially overlooking the political and social contexts in which they emerged.

3.4. Major philosophical debates

A significant event in Cassirer's intellectual life was his encounter with Martin Heidegger in Davos, Switzerland, in 1929, known as the Cassirer-Heidegger debate. The debate centered on the interpretation of Immanuel Kant's philosophy, particularly the role of human temporality and finitude versus the universal validity of knowledge.

Cassirer argued that while Kant's Critique of Pure Reason indeed highlighted human temporality and finitude, it also aimed to establish human cognition within a broader, universal conception of humanity and its potential for knowledge. He challenged Heidegger's emphasis on human finitude and what he perceived as a relativistic approach to truth, by invoking the universal validity of truths discovered through the exact and moral sciences. Cassirer asserted the enduring power of reason and the possibility of universal knowledge, contrasting with Heidegger's more existential and historico-philosophical interpretation that stressed the limits of human understanding.

4. Legacy and reception

Ernst Cassirer's philosophical contributions have had a lasting impact, influencing various fields beyond traditional philosophy and being re-evaluated for their historical and contemporary relevance.

4.1. Influence on later thought

Cassirer's ideas extended far beyond the confines of Neo-Kantianism, deeply influencing subsequent generations of philosophers and scholars. His theory of symbolic forms, in particular, provided a robust framework for understanding human culture and cognition, impacting disciplines such as cultural anthropology and sociology.

In American philosophy, his ideas were notably developed by his translator Susanne Langer, who built upon his work on symbolism, and by Nelson Goodman, who explored the construction of "world-versions." In cultural anthropology, Cassirer's concepts resonated with scholars like Clifford Geertz and Kenneth Burke, who applied symbolic analysis to understand cultural systems and human action. Within sociology, his analysis of functional concepts in `Substanzbegriff und FunktionsbegriffSubstance and FunctionGerman` influenced the development of structural functionalism, impacting the thought of sociologists such as Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann. Furthermore, his work, particularly his critical examination of myth and reason, influenced German philosophers like Hans Blumenberg. Donald Phillip Verene, who published some of Cassirer's papers, highlighted his role as an embodiment of Kantian principles and a broader movement of spirit from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, influencing thinkers from Herder to Wilhelm von Humboldt, Schelling, and Hegel.

4.2. Historical evaluations and criticisms

The reception of Cassirer's work has been varied. While initially receiving a mixed response shortly after his death, more recent scholarship has re-evaluated and increasingly recognized his significant role. He is now widely regarded as a staunch defender of the moral idealism of the Enlightenment era and a passionate advocate for liberal democracy at a time when the rise of fascism made such positions unpopular. Within the international Jewish community, Cassirer's work is seen as part of a long tradition of ethical philosophy.

Despite the widespread recognition of his profound contributions, Cassirer's work has also faced criticism. For instance, scholars like Mazlish have noted that in his `Die Philosophie der AufklärungThe Philosophy of the EnlightenmentGerman` (1932), Cassirer focused almost exclusively on the ideas themselves, potentially overlooking the crucial political and social contexts in which these ideas were produced and disseminated. Nonetheless, his enduring relevance as a proponent of humanism and reason in the face of irrational forces remains a cornerstone of his legacy. His unwavering commitment to the values of the Enlightenment and his critical analysis of totalitarianism continue to resonate in contemporary philosophical and political discourse.

5. Bibliography

This is a comprehensive list of Ernst Cassirer's major works, including original titles and common English translations.

  • `Leibniz' System in seinem wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen` (1902)
  • `Der kritische Idealismus und die Philosophie des "gesunden Menschenverstandes' (1906)
  • `Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit` (The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel, 1906-1920, English translation 1950)
  • `Kant und die moderne Mathematik` (1907)
  • `Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff. Untersuchungen über die Grundfragen der Erkenntniskritik` (Substance and Function, 1910, English translation 1923)
  • `Freiheit und Form. Studien zur deutschen Geistesgeschichte` (Freedom and Form, 1916, English translation 1961)
  • `Kants Leben und Lehre` (Kant's Life and Thought, 1918, English translation 1981)
  • `Zur Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie. Erkenntnistheoretische Betrachtungen` (Einstein's Theory of Relativity, 1920, English translation 1923)
  • `Idee und Gestalt. Goethe, Schiller, Hölderlin, Kleist` (1921)
  • `Philosophie der symbolischen Formen` (Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, 1923-1929, English translation 1953-1957)
    • `Erster Teil: Die Sprache` (Volume One: Language, 1923, English translation 1955)
    • `Zweiter Teil: Das mythische Denken` (Volume Two: Mythical Thought, 1925, English translation 1955)
    • `Dritter Teil: Phänomenologie der Erkenntnis` (Volume Three: The Phenomenology of Knowledge, 1929, English translation 1957)
  • `Sprache und Mythos` (Language and Myth, 1925, English translation 1946 by Susanne Langer)
  • `Individuum und Kosmos in der Philosophie der Renaissance` (The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy, 1927, English translation 1963 by Mario Domandi)
  • `Erkenntnistheorie nebst den Grenzfragen der Logik und Denkpsychologie` ("Epistemology along with Border Questions of Logic and the Psychology of Thought", 1927)
  • `Die Idee der republikanischen Verfassung` (1929)
  • `Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik. Bemerkungen zu Martin Heideggers Kantinterpretation` (1931)
  • `Die Philosophie der Aufklärung` (Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 1932, English translation 1951)
  • `Determinismus und Indeterminismus in der modernen Physik: Historische und systematische Studien des Kausalitätsproblems` (Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics: Historical and Systematic Studies of the Problem of Causality, 1936, English translation 1956)
  • `Axel Hägerström: Eine Studie zur Schwedischen Philosophie der Gegenwart` (1939)
  • `Zur Logik der Kulturwissenschaften` (The Logic of the Cultural Sciences, 1942, English translation 2000 by Steve G. Lofts, previously translated in 1961 as The Logic of the Humanities)
  • `An Essay on Man` (1944, written and published in English)
  • `The Myth of the State` (1946, posthumous, written and published in English)
  • `Philosophie und exakte Wissenschaft` (Philosophy and Exact Science, posthumous)
  • `Descartes, Lehre-Persönlichkeit-Wirkung` (posthumous)
  • `Symbol, Technik, Sprache` (Symbol, Technology, Language, posthumous)
  • `Symbolum et scientia scientia naturalis et philosophia in Europa moderna` (Symbol and Scientia: Natural Science and Philosophy in Modern Europe, posthumous)
  • `The Platonic renaissance in England` (The Platonic Renaissance in England: The Cambridge School, posthumous)
  • `Symbol, myth, and culture: essays and lectures of Ernst Cassirer`, ed. by Donald Phillip Verene (1981)
  • `Zehen Schriften uber Goethe` (Ten Writings on Goethe, posthumous)
  • `Zur Metaphysik symbolischen Formen` (The Metaphysics of Symbolic Forms, posthumous, 1996)
  • `Goethe und die geschichtliche Welt` (Goethe and the Historical World, posthumous)
  • `Rousseau, Kant, Goethe : two essays` (The Spirit of the Eighteenth Century: Rousseau, Kant, and Goethe, posthumous)