Empress Dowager Ci'an

2.1. Birth and Family

The future Empress Xiaozhenxian, whose personal name was not recorded in history, was born on 12 August 1837, the 12th day of the seventh lunar month in the 17th year of the Daoguang Emperor's reign. Her father was Muyang'a (穆揚阿^Chinese), an official who served in Guangxi Province and was posthumously granted the title of a third class duke (三等公^Chinese) by the Tongzhi Emperor. Her birth mother was Lady Jiang (姜氏^Chinese), a concubine of Muyang'a, who later adopted the Manchu surname Giyanggiya. She had at least one brother, Guangke (廣科^Chinese), who later served as a general in Hangzhou, and two sisters: one, Lady Niohuru, who became the primary consort of Prince Zhuanghou of the first rank, Yiren; and another who married Feng'en General Mianlin of the Prince Zhuang household. Her paternal aunt, also Lady Niohuru, was the primary consort of Duanhua (Prince Zheng), a maternal grandmother of Empress Xiaozheyi.

2.2. Ancestry and Lineage

Empress Xiaozhenxian was a descendant of Eidu, one of the five top generals who served under Nurhaci, the founder of the Qing dynasty. Her lineage traced through Eidu's third son, Celge (車爾格^Chinese; died 1647), who served as a Minister of Revenue and held the title of Kijidu (骑都尉^mch) and Iletu Hūwangheo (一雲騎尉^mch). This branch of the Niohuru clan, specifically the 3rd branch of the Hong Yi Gong Fu, was particularly distinguished.

Her great-grandfather, Fukejing'a (福克精阿^Chinese), was a management official in Xining and held the title of a baron. Her grandfather, Cebutan (策布坦^Chinese; died 1794), served as a second-rank commander in Shanxi Province and also held the title of a baron. Her father, Muyang'a, was posthumously honored as a third class cheng'en duke (承恩公^Chinese) after she became a member of the Xianfeng Emperor's harem. The Niohuru clan had strong marital ties with the Aisin Gioro imperial clan and other prominent princely houses, including the Prince Zheng, Prince Su, and Prince Zhuang families, further solidifying her family's esteemed position within the Qing aristocracy.

3.1. Entry into the Harem

When the Daoguang Emperor died on 15 February 1850, his fourth son, Yizhu, succeeded him as the Xianfeng Emperor. The Xianfeng Emperor's primary consort, Lady Sakda, had died a month before his coronation and was posthumously honored as Empress Xiaodexian. The selection process for a new primary consort was delayed due to the mourning period for the Daoguang Emperor.

In 1851, auditions for the Xianfeng Emperor's consorts took place in the Forbidden City. Lady Niohuru was among the candidates shortlisted by Dowager Consort Kangci, the highest-ranked living consort of the Daoguang Emperor at the time. Some sources suggest she might have entered the Forbidden City in the late 1840s as a concubine to the Fourth Prince (the future Xianfeng Emperor), but official imperial records do not support this, indicating her entry was in 1852.

Lady Niohuru's status within the palace ascended rapidly. On 14 June 1852, she was granted the title "Concubine Zhen" (貞嬪^Chinese), with "Zhen" (貞) signifying "upright," "chaste," or "virtuous." In late June or early July 1852, she was elevated to "Noble Consort Zhen" (貞貴妃^Chinese). Just a few weeks later, on 24 July 1852, she was officially designated as the Empress. This rapid promotion, from Concubine to Empress within a few months, was highly unusual and indicated her pre-determined selection for the empress role, likely due to her distinguished family background and the need for a new empress after the death of Empress Xiaodexian.

3.2. Empress Consort

As Empress, Ci'an was entrusted with the significant responsibility of managing the emperor's harem and overseeing the imperial household. Imperial custom dictated that the emperor spend one day a month with the empress. Despite her position, the Empress remained childless throughout her marriage to the Xianfeng Emperor.

On 27 April 1856, another of the Xianfeng Emperor's consorts, Concubine Yi (the future Empress Dowager Cixi), gave birth to the emperor's first and only surviving son, Zaichun. Although Ci'an was not Zaichun's biological mother, as the Empress, she was nominally the mother of all the Xianfeng Emperor's children. Consequently, she was responsible for raising the imperial children and disciplining them. Concubine Yi, Zaichun's birth mother, had limited involvement in her son's upbringing, reportedly finding it difficult to maintain good relations with the Empress. There was a misconception that Ci'an gave birth to the Xianfeng Emperor's only daughter, Gurun Princess Rong'an, but the princess was actually born to Concubine Li (later Imperial Noble Consort Zhuangjing).

4.1. Succession of the Tongzhi Emperor

On 22 August 1861, in the aftermath of the Second Opium War, the Xianfeng Emperor died at the Rehe Traveling Palace (熱河行宮^Chinese), approximately 143 mile ^{(230 km)} northeast of Beijing, where he and his court had sought refuge from Anglo-French forces. He was succeeded by his only surviving son, Zaichun, who was merely five years old and was subsequently enthroned as the Tongzhi Emperor. The emperor's premature death created a power vacuum, leading to a struggle over who would assume the regency until Zaichun reached adulthood. On his deathbed, the Xianfeng Emperor had appointed eight regents, led by his close adviser Sushun, to govern on behalf of the young emperor. However, Noble Consort Yi, the Tongzhi Emperor's biological mother, also sought to assume the regency. Initially, Ci'an agreed to cooperate with Sushun and his co-regents, but she was later persuaded by Noble Consort Yi to change her stance.

4.2. Xinyou Coup and Establishment of Regency

In November 1861, with the crucial support of Yixin, Prince Gong, the Xianfeng Emperor's sixth brother, and Yixuan, Prince Chun, the Xianfeng Emperor's seventh brother and husband of Noble Consort Yi's younger sister, Yehenara Wanzhen, Ci'an and Noble Consort Yi orchestrated a coup d'état. This event, historically known as the Xinyou Coup, successfully ousted the eight regents from power, securing control of the regency for the two empresses dowager.

The coup's planning began in secret. On 5 September 1861, Prince Gong reportedly disguised himself as a shaman to meet secretly with the two empresses dowager at the traveling palace to finalize their plot. On 14 September, Shandong Censor Dong Yuanchun (董元醇^Chinese) submitted a memorial requesting the two empresses dowager to manage state affairs. This was met with fierce opposition from Sushun and his allies, who argued against female regency, causing a heated debate that reportedly frightened the young emperor to tears. As the Xianfeng Emperor's coffin was transported back to Beijing, the empresses dowager, feigning concern for the young emperor's fatigue, arranged for themselves and the Tongzhi Emperor to return to Beijing via a faster route, arriving four days before the coffin and the regents. This allowed them to prepare for the coup. On 2 November 1861, upon the regents' return to Beijing, the empresses dowager launched the coup, ordering Prince Chun to arrest Zaiyuan, Duanhua, and Sushun. Sushun reportedly cursed, "I regret not having dealt with these two sluts sooner!"

Following the coup, Noble Consort Yi was elevated to the status of Empress Dowager and honored as "Holy Mother, Empress Dowager" (聖母皇太后^Chinese), receiving the honorific name "Cixi." As the Xianfeng Emperor's primary wife and the nominal mother of the reigning Tongzhi Emperor, Ci'an was also elevated to Empress Dowager and honored as "Mother Empress, Empress Dowager" (母后皇太后^Chinese). This title gave her precedence over Empress Dowager Cixi, and she was given the honorific name "Ci'an." Due to her residence in the eastern part of the Forbidden City, Empress Dowager Ci'an became informally known as the "East Empress Dowager," while Empress Dowager Cixi, residing in the western part, was known as the "West Empress Dowager." Ci'an spent most of her life in the Palace of Gathering Essence. Over the years, Ci'an received additional honorific names, as was customary, until her full posthumous name became a long string of characters beginning with "Ci'an." Imperial records do not explicitly explain the 24-hour difference in their elevation to Empress Dowager, but some historians suggest it was due to a dispute between Noble Consort Yi and Sushun over honors, where Ci'an supported Noble Consort Yi, forcing Sushun to yield.

4.3. Dual Regency and Governance

The two empresses dowager were appointed joint de facto regents for the Tongzhi Emperor. Due to imperial customs prohibiting women from being seen during court sessions, they conducted governance from behind a yellow silk curtain (黃幔^Chinese) while attending sessions with the child emperor in the Hall of Mental Cultivation (養心殿^Chinese). This system, known as "Listening to Governance Behind the Curtain" (垂簾聽政^Chinese), was formalized with detailed procedures. When attending court, the empresses dowager would sit behind a yellow silk curtain placed behind the emperor's throne in the Hall of Mental Cultivation's East Warm Chamber. Grand Councilors, led by the Prince Regent, would present memorials. Although Ci'an held precedence over Cixi, she was generally a self-effacing individual who rarely intervened in political affairs, unlike Cixi, who effectively controlled the imperial court. As de facto rulers, both empresses dowager engaged in studying history and governance. In November 1861, they began consulting records of their Manchu predecessors. In June 1863, they had the contents of Tong Jian Ji Lan (通鑑輯覽^Chinese), a review of dynastic histories annotated by the Qianlong Emperor, explained to them. They also attended lectures by scholars and officials on A Valuable Mirror for Excellent Governance (治平寶鑑^Chinese) for over two years, concluding in November 1866.

Many biographers believe Cixi was the true power behind the throne. However, for the first 20 years of their regency, no decree could be issued without the approval of both regents. Ci'an's seal was engraved with "Yushang" (Imperial Award), while Cixi's, held on behalf of the underage Tongzhi Emperor, was engraved with "Tongdaotang" (Hall of Accord with the Way). This arrangement meant Ci'an held the primary authority for major decisions, even if Cixi handled daily state affairs. According to Qing Gong Yi Wen, "The East Palace excelled in virtue, and truly held sway over major punishments and major actions; the West Palace excelled in talent, and managed the review of memorials and inquiries into benefits and drawbacks during audiences." This suggests Ci'an, despite her reserved nature, retained ultimate authority over critical state matters.

4.4. Regency during the Tongzhi Era

The years following the Xianfeng Emperor's death marked the Tongzhi Restoration, a period of relative peace and economic recovery after the Taiping Rebellion and the Opium Wars. Empress Dowager Ci'an's direct involvement in politics during this time was minimal, with some notable exceptions.

4.4.2. Tongzhi Emperor's Marriage and Empress Selection

In 1872, both Ci'an and Cixi agreed that it was time for the Tongzhi Emperor to marry. As the highest-ranking woman in the Forbidden City, Ci'an was primarily responsible for selecting the Tongzhi Emperor's empress and consorts. She championed a girl from the Mongol Alute clan, who later became Empress Xiaozheyi. Lady Alute was Ci'an's cousin from her father's side, making her a relative of Ci'an. In contrast, Cixi preferred a girl from the Fushala clan, the daughter of Fengxiu. The Tongzhi Emperor ultimately chose Lady Alute, a decision that reportedly displeased Cixi and strained her relationship with her son. Cixi's strong disapproval of Lady Alute was partly due to the empress's relation to Duanhua, a key figure in the ousted regency, and partly because Lady Alute was Ci'an's cousin, giving Ci'an more influence in the matter.

After the wedding, both empresses dowager formally resigned as co-regents, allowing the Tongzhi Emperor to rule independently. However, they resumed the regency in December 1874 when the Tongzhi Emperor fell ill. In January 1875, the Tongzhi Emperor died at the young age of 18, childless.

4.4.3. Demotion of Prince Gong

Despite his crucial role in the Xinyou Coup and his advocacy for reforms, Prince Gong's influence in the court became a point of contention. In March 1865, Censor Cai Shouqi (蔡寿祺^Chinese) accused Prince Gong of "abusing power, accepting bribes, and acting with arrogance." The empresses dowager ordered an investigation, and seven days later, Prince Gong was stripped of his title as Prince Regent and all his official duties, accused of "disregarding the emperor." However, due to widespread appeals from other officials and the strong advocacy of Empress Dowager Ci'an, Prince Gong was allowed to retain his princely title and manage the Zongli Yamen (Office of Foreign Affairs). This incident marked the first major public conflict between Cixi and Prince Gong and demonstrated Ci'an's willingness to intervene to protect her allies, even against Cixi's wishes. This demotion, occurring less than four years into the regency, was seen as a significant consolidation of Cixi's power, although Ci'an's formal precedence and occasional interventions still served as a check on Cixi's authority.

4.5. Regency during the Guangxu Era

Following the Tongzhi Emperor's death, Cixi's nephew, Zaitian (the son of Prince Chun and Cixi's younger sister, Wanzhen), was selected to ascend the throne as the Guangxu Emperor. As Guangxu was also underage at the time of his accession, the two empresses dowager once again became co-regents. Ci'an began residing in the Chung Tsui Palace (鍾粹宮^Chinese) in the East Six Palaces, while Cixi resided in the Palace of Eternal Spring (長春宮^Chinese).

During the late 1870s, Empress Dowager Cixi suffered from liver problems, leading Empress Dowager Ci'an to temporarily manage state affairs on her own. This period saw her engage with significant foreign policy challenges.

5.1. Personality and Relationships

Ci'an was widely reputed for her gentle, quiet, and benevolent nature. She was described as self-effacing, never hot-tempered, and treated everyone with kindness, earning her deep respect from the Xianfeng Emperor. Both the Tongzhi Emperor and Guangxu Emperor reportedly preferred Ci'an over Cixi, seeing her as a more affectionate and understanding maternal figure. The Tongzhi Emperor, in particular, was said to have a much closer bond with his nominal mother, Ci'an, than with his biological mother, Cixi. Some accounts suggest that the Tongzhi Emperor deliberately fostered this closeness with Ci'an to spite Cixi, whom he disliked.

Before the birth of the Tongzhi Emperor, Concubine Yi (Cixi) was nearly demoted due to her bad temper and insolence, but Ci'an intervened on her behalf, demonstrating her forgiving nature. The early relationship between Ci'an and Cixi was amicable, with them reportedly living on terms of friendship for many years. However, this amicable relationship is said to have ended with Ci'an's death in 1881, amidst growing political tensions and Cixi's increasing dominance.

5.2. Literary Pursuits

Despite her generally passive political role, some accounts suggest Ci'an had a significant intellectual life. Katherine Carl, who spent time with Empress Dowager Cixi in 1903, described Ci'an, whom she never met, as the "Literary Empress." According to Carl, while Cixi managed state affairs, Ci'an devoted herself to literary pursuits and led the life of a scholar. She was reportedly a woman of such fine literary ability that she sometimes personally examined the essays of aspirants for the highest literary honors at the University of Beijing. She was also considered a writer of distinction. This portrayal suggests a hidden depth to Ci'an's character, contrasting with the popular image of her as merely idle or self-indulgent.

6.1. Circumstances of Death

On 8 April 1881, the 10th day of the third lunar month in the 7th year of the Guangxu Emperor's reign, Empress Dowager Ci'an became ill while attending an imperial court session. She was escorted to her private quarters in the Chung Tsui Palace, where she died within a few hours, between 9:00 PM and 11:00 PM. Her sudden passing at the age of 44 came as a shock to many, as she was generally perceived to be in good health.

However, according to the diary of Weng Tonghe, who tutored the Guangxu Emperor, Ci'an had experienced serious illnesses on at least three prior occasions, exhibiting symptoms consistent with strokes. Weng Tonghe recorded her first stroke in March 1863, when she suddenly fainted and lost her ability to speak for nearly a month. Her reputation for "speaking slowly and with difficulty" during audiences may have been a lingering effect of this stroke. A second stroke was recorded in January 1870. The official cause of her death was a sudden stroke. Physicians who have studied her medical records are almost certain that she died of a massive brain hemorrhage, possibly exacerbated by high blood pressure, as some records indicate she had "slightly flushed cheeks," a symptom of elevated blood pressure.

6.2. Cause of Death and Rumors

Despite the official cause of death, rumors began circulating about 30 years after her passing that Empress Dowager Ci'an had been poisoned by Empress Dowager Cixi. These claims were popularized by authors like John Bland and Edmund Backhouse in their book China Under the Empress Dowager.

One of the most widely circulated rumors suggests that before his death, the Xianfeng Emperor had given Ci'an a secret imperial edict, authorizing her to eliminate Cixi if she became too powerful or unruly. According to the rumor, Ci'an, trusting Cixi, showed her the edict and burned it to demonstrate her faith in their co-regency. She then supposedly died under mysterious circumstances later that day, implying Cixi's involvement. Another variant suggests Ci'an discovered Cixi had a secret child, leading Cixi to murder her to cover it up and seize full power.

However, such claims have never been substantiated by definitive evidence. Furthermore, Cixi herself had been severely ill to the point of being unable to perform her court functions around that time, making her direct involvement in Ci'an's death highly unlikely. Most historians consider these rumors to be unsubstantiated literary or politically motivated fabrications aimed at tarnishing Cixi's image.

6.3. Posthumous Honors and Burial

The posthumous name bestowed upon Empress Dowager Ci'an, combining her honorific names gained during her lifetime with new names added after her death, was:

• 孝貞慈安裕慶和敬誠靖儀天祚聖顯皇后^Chinese (hiyoošungga jekdun iletu hūwangheo^mch)

This long name translates to "Empress Xiao (filial) Zhen (chaste) Ci'an (benevolent and peaceful) Yuqing (abundant good fortune) Hejing (harmonious and respectful) Chengjing (sincere and tranquil) Yitian (accordant with heaven) Zuosheng (assisting the sage) Xian (illustrious) Empress." The short form of her posthumous name is "Empress Xiaozhenxian" (孝貞顯皇后^Chinese).

Empress Dowager Ci'an was interred amidst the Eastern Qing tombs, approximately 78 mile ^{(125 km)} east of Beijing. She was not buried next to her husband in the Ding Mausoleum. Instead, she was laid to rest in the Puxiangyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum (普祥峪定東陵^Chinese), part of the Eastern Ding Mausoleum tomb complex, alongside Empress Dowager Cixi. Cixi later constructed a much larger tomb for herself, the Putuoyu Eastern Ding Mausoleum (菩陀峪定東陵^Chinese), nearby. The Ding Mausoleum, literally "tomb of quietude," is the tomb of the Xianfeng Emperor and is located west of the Dingdongling.

8.1. Contrasting Views

A popular and enduring view of Empress Dowager Ci'an, especially in China, is that she was a highly respectable, quiet, and never hot-tempered individual who treated everyone well. This image of a virtuous empress, perhaps stemming from the meaning of her honorific name "Ci'an" (benevolent and peaceful), suggests a stark contrast to Empress Dowager Cixi, who was often portrayed as shrewd, ambitious, and ruthless. Both the Tongzhi Emperor and Guangxu Emperor reportedly preferred Ci'an over Cixi, further solidifying her positive public image.

However, some historians and accounts paint a different picture, portraying Ci'an as self-indulgent and idle, more interested in the pleasures and comforts of life within the Forbidden City than in the demanding work of governance. This perspective suggests that she largely delegated political responsibilities to Cixi, who was seen as more capable and willing to confront China's complex problems. Reformers like Kang Youwei and biographers such as John Bland and Edmund Backhouse are noted for exaggerating the contrast between Ci'an and Cixi, possibly to demonize Cixi further. There are no documented meetings between Ci'an and any foreigners, unlike Cixi, who met many after 1900, which might have contributed to the less detailed historical record of Ci'an's direct political engagement. The reality of Ci'an's character and political involvement likely lies between these two extremes, with some claiming she did exhibit temper and willpower on occasion.

8.2. Relationship with Empress Dowager Cixi

The relationship between Empress Dowager Ci'an and Empress Dowager Cixi was a central dynamic of the late Qing court, characterized by both cooperation and underlying tensions. They initially collaborated effectively, most notably in orchestrating the Xinyou Coup to remove the eight regents appointed by the Xianfeng Emperor. This alliance established their joint regency, with Ci'an holding formal precedence as the primary wife of the deceased emperor.

Despite Ci'an's official seniority, Cixi gradually assumed greater control over state affairs due to her more active and ambitious nature, while Ci'an often remained in the background, focusing on family matters. However, Ci'an was not entirely passive. Her decisive action in ordering the execution of the eunuch An Dehai, a favorite of Cixi, demonstrated her willingness to assert authority and uphold imperial law, even if it displeased her co-regent. This incident, along with Ci'an's role in the selection of the Tongzhi Emperor's empress (Lady Alute, who was Ci'an's cousin and disliked by Cixi), indicated points of friction and a struggle for influence. Cixi's demotion of Prince Gong from his position as head of the Grand Council in 1865, despite Ci'an's support for him, further illustrates the subtle power struggles between the two empresses. While some accounts suggest a sincere affection between them that lasted for many years, the political realities of their shared power often created an imbalance, with Cixi ultimately gaining more practical control.

8.3. Overall Historical Impact

Empress Dowager Ci'an's overall contribution to Qing history is often viewed through the lens of her perceived passivity in politics, yet her presence and occasional interventions had notable consequences. As the senior empress dowager, her formal authority was crucial in legitimizing the dual regency after the Xinyou Coup, providing stability during a period of imperial vulnerability. Her decision to execute An Dehai was a significant act that demonstrated her commitment to upholding dynastic law and curbing corruption, even at the cost of alienating Cixi. This act was widely praised and contributed to the initial success of the Tongzhi Restoration, a period of relative stability and reform.

Ci'an also played a role in key imperial family decisions, such as the selection of the Tongzhi Emperor's empress, which had lasting implications for the imperial succession and Cixi's relationship with the young emperor. During Cixi's illness in the late 1870s, Ci'an temporarily managed state affairs, including foreign policy challenges like the Ili dispute with Russia, demonstrating her capacity for governance when called upon. While Cixi is often credited with the Self-Strengthening Movement, Ci'an's support for Prince Gong and other reform-minded officials, who advocated for learning from the West, suggests her quiet influence in these initiatives. Her death in 1881 removed a crucial check on Cixi's power, allowing Cixi to consolidate her authority and rule as the sole empress dowager for the remainder of her life. Thus, while her role was often understated, Ci'an's presence and actions were integral to the political dynamics and stability of the late Qing court.