Emperor Muzong of Liao

5.1. Internal Stability and Rebellions

Emperor Muzong's reign was plagued by continuous plots and rebellions originating from both the imperial Yelü clan and the consort Xiao clan. Upon his ascension, he dismissed many ministers who had served under Emperor Shizong and resorted to brutal force and repression against those who dared to challenge his authority. Despite the widespread internal strife, his harsh methods eventually managed to restore a semblance of stability and reinforce the authority of the throne.

Several significant rebellions and conspiracies marked his rule:

• In June 952, one of his uncles sent a letter to the Later Zhou dynasty, describing Muzong as "drunk and without ambition." Muzong discovered this letter and promptly ordered the execution of the uncle.
• Following this incident, in 952, Yelü Loguo, an elder brother of Emperor Shizong, initiated a rebellion against Muzong. Muzong successfully suppressed this uprising and executed Yelü Loguo.
• In October 953, a conspiracy involving several imperial relatives, including his younger brother, and high-ranking officials was uncovered. Muzong swiftly detected the plot, executed the conspiring officials, and imprisoned the imperial relatives involved.
• Another plot emerged in November 959. While the previously imprisoned imperial relatives were released, the new plotters were killed, though in one instance, his brother, who was a main conspirator, was spared.
• A major rebellion erupted in northern Manchuria in 964, which was ultimately suppressed by 966.

The constant internal unrest and Emperor Muzong's violent purges underscore his authoritarian and repressive approach to governance.

5.2. Foreign Relations

Emperor Muzong's reign saw complex diplomatic and political interactions with contemporary Chinese dynasties and other regional states.

• The Later Zhou dynasty capitalized on Emperor Muzong's internal difficulties to strengthen its position in northern China, a region that had previously been under the influence of the Khitans.
• Despite the Later Zhou's advances, the Northern Han dynasty managed to maintain its independence, remaining under the protective umbrella of the Liao dynasty.
• The Ding'an State, a kingdom of the Bohai people, sought alliances with neighboring tribes in an attempt to overthrow the Liao dynasty, but these efforts were unsuccessful. In 962, the Ding'an State further solidified its opposition to Liao by forming an alliance with the Northern Song dynasty and Goryeo.
• In 958, the Later Zhou dynasty launched an attack on Liao positions with the aim of reclaiming the Sixteen Prefectures. In response, Emperor Muzong personally led a large army to the southern capital (modern-day Beijing). However, a full military confrontation was averted when the Later Zhou emperor Chai Rong died in early 959, prompting Muzong to return to his capital.
• Midway through Muzong's reign, the Northern Song dynasty supplanted the Later Zhou dynasty as the last of the Five Dynasties. Relations between the Liao and Northern Song dynasties were generally peaceful during Muzong's rule. Despite this peace, two significant issues remained unresolved: the status of the Sixteen Prefectures and the Northern Han dynasty. These contentious issues would eventually lead to war after Emperor Muzong's reign.
• During this period, the Liao and Northern Song states initiated annual diplomatic visits during the Chinese New Year, and a mutually beneficial trade relationship continued to flourish between them.
• In 962, King Gwangjong of Goryeo formed an alliance with the Northern Song dynasty and pursued an expansionist policy northward, aligning with the Ding'an State against the Liao dynasty.
• Around 959, Jurchens (descendants of the Bohai kingdom and the Mohe people) migrated across the Yalu River and settled near the Baekdu Mountains within the territory of the Ding'an State.

5.3. Military Conflicts and Policies

The primary military conflicts during Emperor Muzong's reign revolved around the contentious issue of the Sixteen Prefectures. In 958, the Later Zhou dynasty initiated an offensive to reclaim these territories from Liao control. Emperor Muzong responded decisively by leading a substantial army towards the southern capital, which is now modern-day Beijing. In 959, the Later Zhou emperor Chai Rong successfully defeated Liao forces and recaptured Youzhou. However, Chai Rong's sudden illness forced a halt to the expedition, thereby preventing a full-scale military confrontation. Following this, Emperor Muzong returned to his capital. Despite these engagements, the fundamental dispute over the Sixteen Prefectures remained unresolved, laying the groundwork for future conflicts with the subsequent Northern Song dynasty.

5.4. Ruling Style and Character

Emperor Muzong was widely known for his extremely cruel and tyrannical nature, reportedly enjoying the practice of torture. He suffered from chronic alcoholism, a vice he shared with his predecessor, Emperor Shizong. His excessive drinking was so prominent that he was sarcastically nicknamed the "Sober Emperor." Muzong frequently engaged in arbitrary killings, taking lives without apparent reason, which demonstrated his violent and unpredictable temper.

He exhibited a strong preference for hunting, often neglecting critical state affairs for extended periods to indulge in this pastime. His reign was characterized by extravagance and a significant lack of political engagement, which led to intense power struggles among his ministers and a general decline in the stability and effectiveness of the Liao dynasty's governance. Historians frequently describe his rule as one of the "darkest and most chaotic" periods, or a "dark age," for the Liao dynasty, marked by pervasive internal disorder and a severe deterioration of imperial authority.

8.1. Historical Evaluation

Emperor Muzong's reign, along with that of his predecessor Emperor Shizong, is frequently characterized as a "dark age" for the Liao dynasty. This period witnessed a marked decline in the dynasty's overall strength, largely attributed to Muzong's personal extravagance, his profound neglect of critical state affairs, and the resulting fragmentation of power among his ministers. The continuous internal plots and rebellions that plagued his rule further exacerbated the instability, severely hindering effective governance and any prospects for progress within the empire.

8.2. Criticism and Controversies

Emperor Muzong's rule was marred by extreme cruelty and a reported penchant for torture, as extensively documented in historical records. His severe alcoholism led to highly erratic and unpredictable behavior, including the arbitrary killings of individuals without apparent reason. This created an pervasive atmosphere of fear and instability within the imperial court and throughout the realm. His profound political negligence, driven by a preference for personal pleasures such as hunting over the duties of state, resulted in a critical lack of effective leadership and allowed internal power struggles to escalate unchecked. These actions collectively led to a significant deterioration of human rights and social order during his reign, contributing substantially to the perception of his rule as chaotic, tyrannical, and ultimately detrimental to the Liao dynasty.