1. Overview
Du Qiong, with the courtesy name Boyu, was a prominent official, astronomer, and diviner who served the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in Chengdu in Shu Commandery sometime in the 160s, he gained deep knowledge in astronomy and divination through his studies under Ren An. His career began under the warlord Liu Zhang before he was recruited by Liu Bei following Liu Bei's pacification of Yi Province. Du Qiong played a significant role in advocating for Liu Bei's ascension to the imperial throne, contributing to the establishment of Shu Han. Throughout his tenure under Liu Shan, he held various high-ranking positions, including Counsellor Remonstrant, Left General of the Household, Minister Herald, and Minister of Ceremonies. Known for his quiet and reclusive nature, Du Qiong was highly respected by his contemporaries, including the influential figures Jiang Wan and Fei Yi. He was particularly renowned for his expertise in interpreting astronomical phenomena and prophecies, engaging in intellectual exchanges with scholars like Qiao Zhou. Du Qiong's academic contributions include the extensive commentary *Han Shi Zhangju*, though his specialized knowledge was not widely transmitted due to his reluctance to take on disciples. His interpretations of prophecies, particularly regarding the fate of the Han dynasty and the rise of the Cao Wei state, profoundly influenced later scholars. He died in 250, at over 80 years of age.
2. Early Life and Background
Du Qiong, whose courtesy name was Boyu, was born in Chengdu, Shu Commandery, which is located in present-day Sichuan. His birth is estimated to have occurred sometime in the 160s, or before 170.
2.1. Academic Background
In his youth, Du Qiong pursued his studies under the tutelage of Ren An, a notable scholar of the time. Through this education, Du Qiong acquired profound knowledge and mastery of Ren An's arts, specializing in astronomy and divination, including the interpretation of apocrypha (讖緯chènwěiChinese) and the Book of Changes (易經YìjīngChinese). He was a fellow student with He Zong and Du Wei.
2.2. Early Career
Du Qiong's official career began during the era of Liu Zhang, the Governor of Yi Province (which encompassed areas of present-day Sichuan and Chongqing). Liu Zhang recruited Du Qiong to serve in his administration as an Assistant Officer (從事cóngshìChinese). In 214, after the warlord Liu Bei successfully seized control of Yi Province from Liu Zhang, Du Qiong was subsequently appointed as an Assistant Officer in the Consultation Bureau (議曹從事yìcáocóngshìChinese) within Liu Bei's newly established administration.
3. Career in Shu Han
Du Qiong held several significant official positions and responsibilities throughout his service in the state of Shu Han, first under Liu Bei and then under his successor, Liu Shan.
3.1. Advocacy for Liu Bei's Emperorship
Following the collapse of the Eastern Han dynasty in 220, when Cao Pi usurped the throne and established the state of Cao Wei, Du Qiong became a vocal advocate for Liu Bei to declare himself emperor. He, along with other prominent officials and scholars such as Liu Bao, Xiang Ju, Zhang Yi, Huang Quan, Yin Chun, Zhao Zuo, Yang Hong, He Zong, Zhang Shuang, Yin Mo, and Qiao Zhou, submitted memorials urging Liu Bei to ascend the imperial throne. Du Qiong specifically cited works of divination to support his argument, emphasizing the need for Liu Bei to establish a legitimate successor state to the Han dynasty. Liu Bei heeded these calls and declared himself emperor in 221, thereby founding the state of Shu Han.
3.2. Service under Liu Shan
After Liu Bei's death in 223, Du Qiong continued his service under Liu Bei's son and successor, Liu Shan. During Liu Shan's reign (223-263), Du Qiong held a series of increasingly important positions. He was initially appointed as a Counsellor Remonstrant (諫議大夫jiànyìdàfūChinese), a role that involved offering advice and criticism to the emperor. He was subsequently promoted to Left General of the Household (左中郎將zuǒzhōnglángjiàngChinese), then Minister Herald (大鴻臚dàhónglúChinese), and finally Minister of Ceremonies (太常tàichángChinese).
In 234, upon the death of Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor of Shu Han, Liu Shan specifically ordered Du Qiong to carry an imperial edict of mourning to Zhuge Liang's tomb. Du Qiong was tasked with reading this edict aloud, a significant ceremonial duty that underscored his respected position within the court. He also brought the seal and posthumous title of the Chancellor. Du Qiong continued to serve under the administrations of Jiang Wan and Fei Yi, who consecutively led the central government after Zhuge Liang's passing.
4. Expertise in Astronomy and Divination
Du Qiong was highly regarded for his specialized knowledge and practice of astronomy and divination, skills he had cultivated since his youth. Although his deep academic understanding of astronomy was initially not widely known, it became apparent through his interactions with other scholars.
4.1. Interactions with Qiao Zhou
A younger scholar and colleague, Qiao Zhou, frequently sought Du Qiong's insights on astronomical phenomena. Du Qiong explained the difficulty of mastering astronomy, advising Qiao Zhou to observe the heavens personally and discern the characteristics of various astronomical events rather than relying on others' interpretations. He stated that mastering the art required immense effort and time, and once understood, it brought the burden of worrying about revealing future secrets, suggesting it was sometimes better not to know. This was why he had ceased his own direct observation of the heavens.
4.2. Interpretation of Prophecies and Political Commentary
Du Qiong was particularly adept at interpreting prophecies and connecting them to political events, offering insights that influenced later scholars.
Qiao Zhou once asked Du Qiong about the meaning of the popular saying, "something tall on the road will replace the Han (dynasty)," specifically inquiring why it was believed to refer to the state of Cao Wei. Du Qiong explained that the Chinese character for "Wei" (魏WèiChinese) also referred to the two viewing towers at each gate of the imperial palace, which stood prominently on the road. He suggested that the sages, recognizing this double meaning, used it as a subtle allusion.
Du Qiong further elaborated on his interpretation by noting that in ancient times, the term "Cao" (曹CáoChinese) was not used in official titles. This practice, he observed, began only with the Han dynasty, where clerks were called shu cao (屬曹shǔcáoChinese) and guards were called shi cao (侍曹shìcáoChinese). He concluded that this widespread use of "Cao" in official nomenclature was likely an indication of Heaven's will, subtly foreshadowing the rise of the Cao family (the ruling clan of Cao Wei) and their eventual replacement of the Han dynasty.
Qiao Zhou later expanded upon Du Qiong's interpretations, using them to reinforce his own views, particularly regarding the eventual surrender of Shu Han to Cao Wei. After the fall of Shu Han, when people praised Qiao Zhou for his accurate predictions, he humbly stated that his insights were derived from and expanded upon Du Qiong's words, rather other than being solely his own divine foresight.
5. Personality and Reputation
Du Qiong was known for his distinctive personality and earned a high reputation among his contemporaries.
5.1. Personal Conduct
He was characterized as a quiet and reserved individual, speaking little and preferring to keep to himself. Du Qiong maintained a low profile throughout his career, often closing his doors and remaining in his residence during non-working hours, with minimal interaction with colleagues outside of official duties.
5.2. Reputation among Contemporaries
Despite his reclusive nature, Du Qiong was highly respected and regarded by prominent figures within the Shu Han government. Both Jiang Wan and Fei Yi, who successively served as the heads of the Shu central government from 234 to 253, held Du Qiong in high esteem, recognizing his deep knowledge and character.
6. Scholarship and Writings
Du Qiong dedicated himself to scholarly pursuits, producing a significant literary work, though his academic legacy faced challenges in transmission.
6.1. Han Shi Zhangju
He authored an extensive commentary titled Han Shi Zhangju (韓詩章句Hán Shī ZhāngjùChinese), which comprised over 100,000 Chinese characters. This work served as a detailed annotation to Han Ying's version of the Classic of Poetry (詩經ShījīngChinese).
6.2. Lack of Disciples
Despite his profound knowledge and scholarly contributions, Du Qiong notably chose not to accept any students or apprentices. This decision meant that his specialized academic and divinatory knowledge was not systematically passed down to a successor. However, this account is contradicted by the Huayang Guo Zhi, which records that Gao Wan was a student of Du Qiong. Gao Wan later served during the Jin dynasty as Court Astronomer (太史令tàishǐlìngChinese), suggesting he did inherit some of Du Qiong's knowledge and skills.
7. Post-mortem Influence
Du Qiong's academic views and interpretations of prophecies had a lasting influence, particularly on his colleague Qiao Zhou, shaping later political commentary and predictions regarding the fate of Shu Han.
Qiao Zhou, building upon what he learned from Du Qiong, developed his own divinatory ideas. He once made a notable prophecy by drawing parallels between historical events and the names of rulers. He cited the case of Marquis Mu of Jin, who named his elder son "Chou" (仇chóuChinese, meaning "enemy" or "less favored") and his younger son "Chengshi" (成師chéngshīChinese, meaning "form an army"). The adviser Shifu predicted internal conflict, which later materialized. Qiao Zhou also noted that Emperor Ling of Han named his sons "Marquis of Shi" and "Marquis of Hou," and though both became emperors, they were eventually dethroned. Qiao Zhou then applied this pattern to the Shu Han rulers: Liu Bei's given name "Bei" (備bèiChinese) implied "well-furnished," and Liu Shan's given name "Shan" (禪chánChinese) implied "giving away." Qiao Zhou interpreted this to mean that the Liu family, being "well-furnished," was destined to "give away" their throne, suggesting an even more inauspicious fate than those of Marquis Mu or Emperor Ling's sons.
In 262, during the period when the eunuch Huang Hao wielded significant power in Shu Han, a large tree in the imperial palace unexpectedly collapsed. Qiao Zhou, deeply troubled by this omen but having no one to confide in, inscribed a 12-character mantra on a pillar. This mantra subtly foreshadowed the conquest of Shu by Wei which occurred just a year later. After the fall of Shu, when people lauded Qiao Zhou for his accurate prediction, he humbly stated that while he had indeed deduced it himself, his insights were fundamentally rooted in and expanded from the sayings of Du Qiong, disclaiming any unique divine ability.
8. Portrayal in Literature
Du Qiong is featured in the historical novel *Romance of the Three Kingdoms*, where his portrayal differs somewhat from historical records, particularly concerning his role as a diviner or a military figure. He appears in chapters 80, 85, and 100 of the novel.
In chapter 80, he is depicted as one of the civil and military officials hidden behind a screen when Zhuge Liang feigns illness to summon Liu Bei to his residence, aiming to persuade Liu Bei to ascend to the imperial throne.
In chapter 85, when Cao Pi launches a five-pronged invasion against Shu Han, the Latter Emperor Liu Shan dispatches Huangmen Shilang Dong Yun and Counsellor Remonstrant Du Qiong to inquire why Chancellor Zhuge Liang has not appeared at court. Zhuge Liang initially feigns illness and refuses to meet them. Du Qiong, recognizing the urgency of the military situation, insists that Liu Shan personally visit the Chancellor's residence to seek his counsel, which Liu Shan eventually does.
In chapter 100, Du Qiong is portrayed as a general. He is ordered by Zhuge Liang to march to Qi Valley alongside Wei Yan, Zhang Yi, and Chen Shi. Although Zhuge Liang sends Deng Zhi to warn them about enemy ambushes, Wei Yan and Chen Shi disregard the warning and advance, falling into an ambush set by Sima Yi and suffering a major defeat. Du Qiong and Zhang Yi manage to link up with the retreating Wei Yan and Chen Shi, helping to repel the pursuing Wei forces. Upon returning to Mount Qi, Du Qiong, Wei Yan, Zhang Yi, and Chen Shi confess their failures. Zhuge Liang executes Chen Shi as the main culprit for the defeat, while Wei Yan is reassigned to the rear. Historically, there is no record of Du Qiong serving as a general; his role in the novel as a military commander is likely a fictional embellishment, possibly based on his historical position as Left General of the Household.
9. Death
Du Qiong died in 250, at the approximate age of 80 or more.