Czech Republic

3.1. Prehistory and Ancient Times

Archaeological evidence indicates human settlements in the Czech lands dating back to the Paleolithic era. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice, a ceramic figurine discovered in Moravia, is one of the oldest known ceramic artifacts in the world, dating to approximately 29,000-25,000 BCE.

During classical antiquity, Celtic tribes, notably the Boii, migrated to the region in the 3rd century BCE. The Boii established an oppidum (a fortified settlement) near the site of modern Prague. Subsequently, in the 1st century CE, Germanic tribes such as the Marcomanni and Quadi settled in the area.

The migration of Slavic tribes from the Black Sea-Carpathian region into the Czech lands occurred around the 6th century CE, partly due to pressure from invasions by peoples like the Huns, Avars, Bulgars, and Magyars. In the 7th century, a Frankish merchant named Samo supported the Slavs in their fight against the Avars and became the ruler of Samo's Empire, considered the first documented Slavic state in Central Europe.

The principality of Great Moravia emerged in the 8th century under the Moymirid dynasty. It reached its zenith in the 9th century during the reign of Svatopluk I, successfully resisting Frankish influence. Great Moravia underwent Christianization, significantly influenced by the Byzantine mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius. These missionaries codified Old Church Slavonic, the first literary and liturgical language of the Slavs, and developed the Glagolitic script for it, laying crucial foundations for Slavic literacy and religious practice. However, Great Moravia eventually declined due to internal conflicts and Magyar invasions in the early 10th century.

3.2. Kingdom of Bohemia

The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century, unified by the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, Bohemia was formally recognized as an Imperial State of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1198, Přemysl Ottokar I secured the Golden Bull of Sicily from the emperor, which confirmed royal status for himself and his descendants, elevating the Duchy to the Kingdom of Bohemia. During the 13th century, German immigrants began settling in the Bohemian periphery. The Mongol invasion of Europe in the 13th century saw raids into Moravia, but they were ultimately defeated at Olomouc.

Following a series of dynastic wars, the House of Luxembourg gained the Bohemian throne in the early 14th century. The reign of Charles IV (Karel IV_{Charles IV}^Czech), who also became Holy Roman Emperor, marked a golden age for Bohemia. Prague flourished as the imperial capital, and in 1348, Charles University was founded, becoming the first university in Central Europe and a major center of learning.

The late 14th and early 15th centuries were marked by the Bohemian Reformation, a significant religious movement led by Jan Hus, a theologian and rector of Charles University. Hus criticized corruption within the Catholic Church and advocated for reforms. His execution as a heretic at the Council of Constance in 1415 ignited the Hussite Wars (1419-1434). Hussite forces, under commanders like Jan Žižka, successfully defended against several crusades launched by Emperor Sigismund. The Hussites, who included factions like the radical Taborites and the more moderate Utraquists, sought religious and national autonomy. For a period, a large proportion of the population in Bohemia and Moravia adhered to Hussite beliefs. The pacifist thinker Petr Chelčický inspired the Moravian Brethren (Unity of the Brethren), a group that separated entirely from the Roman Catholic Church in the mid-15th century.

After the Hussite Wars, Bohemian society remained religiously diverse. However, by 1526, following the death of King Louis II at the Battle of Mohács, the Bohemian Crown lands gradually came under the control of the Habsburg dynasty. The Habsburgs were initially elected rulers but, by 1627, established hereditary rule over Bohemia. Prague again served as an imperial seat during the reign of Emperor Rudolf II (1583-1611), a period known for its cultural and scientific pursuits.

3.3. Habsburg Rule and National Revival

The consolidation of Habsburg rule faced significant opposition, particularly from Protestant nobles. The Defenestration of Prague in 1618, where Protestant estates threw two imperial governors and their secretary out of a window of Prague Castle, marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt against Habsburg authority and ignited the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). The revolt was decisively crushed at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620. This defeat had profound consequences for the Czech lands: Habsburg control was firmly established, leading Protestant nobles were executed in Prague's Old Town Square in 1621, and Protestantism was suppressed. The nobility and middle class Protestants were forced to convert to Catholicism or emigrate, leading to a significant loss of Czech cultural and intellectual figures.

The period from 1620 to the late 18th century is often termed the "Dark Age" (Doba temna_{Dark Age}^Czech) in Czech history, characterized by re-Catholicization, Germanization, and the suppression of Czech language and culture. The population of the Czech lands declined significantly due to war, disease, famine, and the expulsion of Protestants. The Habsburgs prohibited all Christian confessions other than Catholicism. Despite the political and religious oppression, this era also saw a flowering of Baroque art and architecture, which left a lasting mark on the Czech landscape. The Ottoman Turks and Tatars invaded Moravia in 1663, and the period also saw peasant uprisings, such as one in 1680 following the Great Plague of Vienna.

The Enlightenment and reforms under Habsburg rulers like Maria Theresa and Joseph II in the late 18th century brought some changes, including the abolition of serfdom (between 1781 and 1848). However, with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the political status of Bohemia was diminished, and the Czech lands became part of the Austrian Empire.

The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the Czech National Revival (České národní obrození_{Czech National Revival}^Czech). This cultural and political movement aimed to revive the Czech language, literature, culture, and national identity. Figures like Josef Dobrovský and Josef Jungmann played key roles in standardizing the Czech language, while historians like František Palacký emphasized Czech historical achievements. The revival had significant social impacts, fostering a sense of national consciousness among various segments of Czech society. The Revolution of 1848 in Prague, which sought liberal reforms and autonomy for the Bohemian Crown within the Austrian Empire, was ultimately suppressed. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which created a dual monarchy granting Hungary significant autonomy, disappointed Czech aspirations for similar status. The Bohemian Crown lands became part of Cisleithania, the Austrian-administered part of Austria-Hungary. Towards the end of the 19th century and into the early 20th, Czech political parties, including Social Democrats and progressives, increasingly campaigned for political reforms, including universal suffrage, which was partially achieved for men in 1907.

3.4. Czechoslovakia

The collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I led to the establishment of the independent First Czechoslovak Republic on October 28, 1918. Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk became its first president. The new state, which incorporated the historical Czech lands (Bohemia, Moravia, and Czech Silesia) along with Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia, was a parliamentary democracy. Despite comprising only 27% of the former empire's population, it inherited nearly 80% of its industry, making it one of the most industrialized and prosperous nations in interwar Europe. Czechoslovakia was unique in Central and Eastern Europe for remaining a functioning democracy throughout the entire interwar period. However, the republic faced challenges related to its diverse ethnic composition, including significant German (Sudeten Germans), Hungarian, and Ukrainian minorities, whose rights and representation became sources of tension.

The rise of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler posed an existential threat. In 1938, under the Munich Agreement, Britain, France, and Italy appeased Hitler by ceding the German-speaking Sudetenland regions of Czechoslovakia to Germany, without Czechoslovak participation in the decision. This act severely weakened the country and is seen as a betrayal by Western powers, undermining democratic solidarity. In March 1939, Germany occupied the remaining Czech territories, establishing the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, a nominally autonomous region under direct Nazi control. Slovakia became a separate puppet state allied with Germany.

The Nazi occupation was brutal. The Terezín (Theresienstadt) concentration camp was established in Czech territory, serving as a ghetto and transit camp for Jews, many of whom were later murdered in extermination camps. The vast majority of the Protectorate's Jewish population perished in the Holocaust. The Nazis' Generalplan Ost envisioned the extermination, expulsion, or Germanization of much of the Czech population to create "living space" (Lebensraum) for Germans. There was significant Czechoslovak resistance to Nazi rule, both at home and abroad, which led to harsh reprisals, such as the destruction of the villages of Lidice and Ležáky following the assassination of Reich Protector Reinhard Heydrich in 1942.

Czechoslovakia was restored in May 1945 following its liberation by Soviet and American armies and the Prague uprising. A significant and controversial event in the immediate post-war period was the expulsion of the majority of the German-speaking population from Czechoslovakia, based on the Beneš decrees and ratified by the Allied powers at the Potsdam Conference. This had profound demographic and social consequences.

In the 1946 parliamentary elections, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) emerged as the largest party, gaining 38% of the vote. In February 1948, the KSČ staged a coup d'état, establishing a single-party communist regime aligned with the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc. The following decades were characterized by political repression, censorship, and a centrally planned economy.

A period of reform and liberalization, known as the Prague Spring, began in early 1968 under the leadership of Alexander Dubček, who sought to create "socialism with a human face." These reforms, which included greater freedom of speech, press, and assembly, were met with alarm by the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries. In August 1968, Soviet-led forces invaded Czechoslovakia, crushing the Prague Spring and installing a hardline communist regime under Gustáv Husák. This period, known as "normalization," saw renewed repression and stagnation.

Dissident movements, such as Charter 77, continued to advocate for human rights and democracy. The fall of the Berlin Wall and growing popular discontent culminated in the Velvet Revolution in November 1989, a series of peaceful demonstrations that led to the collapse of communist rule and the restoration of democracy. Václav Havel, a prominent dissident playwright, became president.

3.5. Czech Republic

Following the Velvet Revolution, political differences and national aspirations between Czechs and Slovaks grew. Negotiations led to the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia, often called the "Velvet Divorce," on January 1, 1993. Two independent states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, were formed. Václav Havel became the first president of the Czech Republic.

The newly independent Czech Republic embarked on a path of political and economic transformation, including the introduction of a market economy through privatization and reforms. These reforms, while largely successful in transitioning to a market-based system, also brought social challenges such as unemployment and increased inequality in the initial years. The country rapidly integrated into Western political and economic structures, joining the Visegrád Group in 1991 (as part of Czechoslovakia), the OECD in 1995, NATO in 1999, and the European Union on May 1, 2004. The Czech Republic joined the Schengen Area in 2007, allowing for free movement across borders with member states.

Politically, the country was initially dominated by the centre-left Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) and the centre-right Civic Democratic Party (ODS). The political landscape shifted with the rise of the populist movement ANO 2011, led by Andrej Babiš, which won the 2017 legislative election. Following the 2021 legislative election, a coalition government led by Petr Fiala of the ODS came to power. In January 2023, Petr Pavel, a retired army general, was elected president, succeeding Miloš Zeman.

In recent years, the Czech Republic has faced societal challenges including debates on social issues and responses to international events. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Czech Republic demonstrated strong support for Ukraine and accepted a large number of Ukrainian refugees, reportedly the largest number per capita in the world, highlighting its commitment to humanitarian principles and democratic solidarity.

4.1. Climate

The Czech Republic has a temperate climate, transitional between oceanic and continental types. This results in warm, often rainy summers and cold, cloudy, and snowy winters. The landlocked geographical position contributes to significant temperature differences between summer and winter.

Temperatures vary considerably with elevation; generally, higher altitudes experience lower temperatures and increased precipitation. The wettest area is around Bílý Potok in the Jizera Mountains, while the Louny District northwest of Prague is the driest region. The distribution of mountain ranges also influences local climatic conditions.

At the highest peak, Sněžka (5.2 K ft ^{(1.60 K m)}), the average temperature is around 31.28 °F ^{(-0.4 °C)}. In contrast, the lowlands of the South Moravian Region can have average temperatures as high as 50 °F ^{(10 °C)}. Prague, the capital, has a similar average temperature, influenced by urban factors.

January is typically the coldest month, followed by February and December. During these months, snow is common in the mountains and can also occur in cities and lowlands. Temperatures usually increase from March through May, with April often seeing variable weather. Spring is characterized by higher water levels in rivers due to melting snow, which can occasionally lead to flooding.

July is the warmest month, followed by August and June. Average summer temperatures are about 36 °F ^{(20 °C)} to 54 °F ^{(30 °C)} higher than in winter. Summers also experience rain and thunderstorms. Autumn generally begins in September, which can still be warm and dry. By October, temperatures typically fall, and deciduous trees begin to shed their leaves. By late November, temperatures often hover around freezing.

The lowest temperature ever recorded was -43.96000000000001 °F ^{(-42.2 °C)} in Litvínovice near České Budějovice in 1929. The highest temperature recorded was 104.72 °F ^{(40.4 °C)} in Dobřichovice in 2012. Most rainfall occurs during the summer months. While sporadic rainfall is experienced throughout the year, concentrated rainfall (days with more than 0.4 in ^{(10 mm)}) is more frequent from May to August. Severe thunderstorms, capable of producing damaging straight-line winds, hail, and occasional tornadoes, can occur, particularly during the summer.

4.2. Biodiversity and Conservation

The Czech Republic's territory belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, it can be subdivided into four ecoregions: Western European broadleaf forests, Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Carpathian montane conifer forests. The country's fauna is diverse, including species such as eagles, ospreys, bustards, and storks; some endangered species are bred in reserves.

There are four national parks in the Czech Republic:

• Krkonoše National Park (Krkonošský národní park_{Krkonoše National Park}^Czech), the oldest, also a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
• Šumava National Park (Národní park Šumava_{Šumava National Park}^Czech), also a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
• Podyjí National Park (Národní park Podyjí_{Podyjí National Park}^Czech).
• Bohemian Switzerland National Park (Národní park České Švýcarsko_{Bohemian Switzerland National Park}^Czech).

Additionally, there are 25 Protected Landscape Areas (Chráněná krajinná oblast_{Protected Landscape Area}^Czech, CHKO). These protected areas aim to conserve the country's natural heritage and biodiversity. However, environmental challenges such as air pollution, particularly in industrial regions, persist. National conservation efforts focus on environmental sustainability and mitigating these issues. In 2020, the Czech Republic ranked 21st in the Environmental Performance Index. It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.71/10, ranking it 160th globally out of 172 countries.

5.1. Constitution and Law

The Czech legal system is a civil law system (continental type) rooted in Germanic legal culture. The foundational legal document is the Constitution of the Czech Republic, adopted on December 16, 1992, and effective from January 1, 1993. It establishes the principles of the rule of law, separation of powers, and fundamental human rights and freedoms, which are further detailed in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, an integral part of the constitutional order.

The judiciary is independent and comprises a system of general courts and a Constitutional Court. The general courts are structured into district, regional, and high courts, with the Supreme Court (Nejvyšší soud_{Supreme Court}^Czech) in Brno as the highest court of appeal for most civil and criminal cases, and the Supreme Administrative Court (Nejvyšší správní soud_{Supreme Administrative Court}^Czech), also in Brno, as the highest court for administrative justice. The Constitutional Court (Ústavní soud_{Constitutional Court}^Czech), based in Brno, consists of 15 judges appointed by the President with Senate consent for ten-year terms. It rules on the constitutionality of laws, disputes over competencies between state bodies, and complaints against violations of constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights.

Key branches of Czech law include civil law (governed by the Civil Code, significantly reformed in 2014), criminal law (governed by the Criminal Code, effective from 2010), administrative law, and commercial law. Law enforcement is primarily the responsibility of the Police of the Czech Republic.

5.2. Parliament

The Parliament of the Czech Republic (Parlament České republiky_{Parliament of the Czech Republic}^Czech) is bicameral, consisting of:

• The Chamber of Deputies (Poslanecká sněmovna_{Chamber of Deputies}^Czech) is the lower house, comprising 200 members elected for a four-year term by proportional representation. There are 14 multi-member constituencies, corresponding to the country's administrative regions. A 5% electoral threshold is required for a party to gain representation. The Chamber of Deputies is the primary legislative body; the government is responsible to it and requires its confidence. It has the power to override a presidential veto with an absolute majority of all deputies.
• The Senate (Senát_Senate^Czech) is the upper house, composed of 81 members elected for a six-year term. One-third of the senators are elected every two years in single-member constituencies using a two-round runoff voting system. The Senate's powers include reviewing and amending legislation passed by the Chamber of Deputies, approving constitutional judges, and initiating constitutional amendments. In certain cases, such as electoral laws or constitutional laws, the Senate's approval is mandatory.

The legislative process typically begins in the Chamber of Deputies. Bills passed by the Chamber are then sent to the Senate for consideration. If the Senate rejects or amends a bill, it returns to the Chamber of Deputies, which can override the Senate's decision (except for certain types of laws) by an absolute majority vote. Laws are then signed by the President. The President has the power to veto legislation (except constitutional laws), which can be overridden by the Chamber of Deputies.

5.3. Human Rights

Human rights in the Czech Republic are primarily guaranteed by the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms, which is part of the constitutional order, and by international human rights treaties to which the country is a party. The framework generally upholds democratic values, including freedom of speech, assembly, and religion.

Key human rights issues that have drawn attention include the rights of minorities. The Romani community has historically faced discrimination, particularly in areas such as housing, employment, and education. There have been reports and concerns raised by international bodies regarding the segregation of Romani children in schools and societal prejudice. The Czech government has taken steps to address these issues, but challenges remain. The Vietnamese community, another significant minority, also faces issues related to integration and occasional discrimination, though they are generally well-integrated.

LGBT rights have seen progressive developments. Registered partnerships for same-sex couples were legalized in 2006, granting many of the rights and obligations of marriage. Discussions and legislative efforts regarding the legalization of same-sex marriage have been ongoing, reflecting evolving societal attitudes, though it is not yet legal.

Freedom of speech and the press are generally respected. However, there are legal restrictions concerning hate speech, denial of the Holocaust, and the promotion of extremist ideologies.

Civil society organizations and governmental bodies, such as the Public Defender of Rights (Ombudsman), play a role in monitoring and advocating for human rights. Ongoing efforts focus on combating discrimination based on ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, and other grounds, and on strengthening the rule of law and democratic institutions. From a social liberal perspective, while the Czech Republic has a strong legal framework for human rights, continuous vigilance and proactive measures are necessary to ensure these rights are fully realized for all individuals and groups within society, particularly for vulnerable populations.

8.1. Major Cities

The Czech Republic has several significant urban centers, each with its own historical, economic, cultural, and demographic importance.

• Prague (Praha_Prague^Czech) is the capital and largest city, with a population of over 1.3 million. It is the political, cultural, and economic heart of the country. A historic city with stunning architecture spanning centuries, Prague is a major European tourist destination, home to landmarks like Prague Castle, Charles Bridge, and the Old Town Square. It hosts numerous universities, theaters, museums, and galleries.
• Brno (Brno_Brno^Czech) is the second-largest city and the historical capital of Moravia, with a population of nearly 400,000. It is a major judicial center, housing the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, and Supreme Administrative Court. Brno is also a significant center for education (Masaryk University), trade fairs (Brno Exhibition Centre), and technology.
• Ostrava (Ostrava_Ostrava^Czech) is the third-largest city, located in the Moravian-Silesian Region near the Polish border, with a population of around 280,000. Historically a major coal mining and metallurgical center, Ostrava is undergoing economic transformation, focusing on services, IT, and tourism, while still retaining some industrial character. It is known for its industrial heritage sites and cultural events like the Colours of Ostrava music festival.
• Plzeň (Plzeň_Pilsen^Czech) (Pilsen) is the fourth-largest city and the administrative center of the Plzeň Region, with a population of over 180,000. It is world-renowned as the birthplace of Pilsner beer (Pilsner Urquell brewery was founded here in 1842). Plzeň is also an important industrial, commercial, and cultural center in western Bohemia, home to Škoda Transportation.
• Liberec (Liberec_Liberec^Czech) is the fifth-largest city and the capital of the Liberec Region, with a population of over 100,000. Located in northern Bohemia, near the borders with Germany and Poland, Liberec has a history in textile manufacturing and is now a regional center for services, education, and tourism, particularly winter sports due to its proximity to the Jizera and Lusatian Mountains.

Other significant cities include Olomouc (Olomouc_Olomouc^Czech), a historic Moravian city with a UNESCO-listed Holy Trinity Column and Palacký University; České Budějovice (České Budějovice_{České Budějovice}^Czech), known for the Budweiser Budvar brewery; and Hradec Králové (Hradec Králové_{Hradec Králové}^Czech), an important regional center in eastern Bohemia.

9.1. Major Industries

The Czech Republic has a strong and diverse industrial base, a legacy of its early industrialization within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Key industrial sectors include:

• Automotive Manufacturing: This is a cornerstone of the Czech economy. Škoda Auto, now part of the Volkswagen Group, is the largest company by revenue and a major exporter. The country also hosts production facilities for other international carmakers and a wide network of automotive component suppliers.
• Machinery and Equipment: Production of various types of machinery, including machine tools, industrial equipment, and agricultural machinery (e.g., Zetor tractors), is significant.
• Electronics: The country has a notable presence in electronics manufacturing, including consumer electronics and components, with companies like Foxconn having large operations.
• Chemical Production: The chemical industry produces a range of products, from basic chemicals to specialized pharmaceuticals. Unipetrol is a major player in oil processing and petrochemicals.
• Metalworking and Metallurgy: Steel production (e.g., Moravia Steel) and metal fabrication remain important.
• Traditional Industries:
  • Glassmaking and Crystal: Bohemian glass and crystal are world-renowned for their quality and artistry, a tradition dating back centuries.
  • Brewing: Czech beer is internationally famous, with a long history and high per capita consumption. Pilsner Urquell (from Plzeň) and Budweiser Budvar (from České Budějovice) are iconic brands.
• Transportation Equipment: Beyond passenger cars, companies like Škoda Transportation are major producers of trams, trolleybuses, and metro cars (ranking among the world's largest tram producers). Tatra is known for heavy-duty trucks. Aero Vodochody produces military aircraft, and Let Kunovice manufactures civil aircraft.
• Firearms Manufacturing: Česká zbrojovka (CZUB) is a globally recognized firearms manufacturer, producing a wide range of civilian and military arms.
• Vinyl Record Production: GZ Media is one of the world's largest manufacturers of vinyl records.

Major companies by revenue also include the utility company ČEZ Group and the energy trading company EPH. The food industry is represented by companies like Agrofert and Kofola.

9.2. Energy

The Czech Republic's energy sector relies on a mix of sources, with nuclear power and coal traditionally playing significant roles. Electricity production generally exceeds domestic consumption, allowing for exports.

• Nuclear Power: Nuclear energy provides a substantial portion of the country's electricity, currently around 30%, with plans to potentially increase this share to 40% or more as part of efforts to reduce carbon emissions. There are two operational nuclear power stations: Temelín Nuclear Power Station and Dukovany Nuclear Power Station.
• Coal: Coal, particularly low-grade brown coal (lignite), has historically been a major energy source, especially for electricity generation and heating. However, there are ongoing efforts to reduce dependence on coal due to its high pollution levels and environmental impact. In 2005, about 65.4% of electricity was produced by steam and combustion power plants, mostly coal-fired.
• Natural Gas: Natural gas is largely imported. Historically, a significant portion came from Russia, but following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, the Czech government has worked to diversify supplies, increasing imports from Norway and via LNG terminals in the Netherlands and Belgium. Gas consumption is substantial, nearly double that of electricity consumption.
• Renewable Energy: The share of renewable energy sources (including hydropower, solar, wind, and biomass) in the energy mix has been growing, supported by EU targets and national policies. In 2005, renewables accounted for about 4.6% of electricity production.
• Oil: The Czech Republic has small oil and gas deposits, primarily in South Moravia, but relies heavily on imports for its crude oil needs.

The country's energy policy aims to balance energy security, economic competitiveness, and environmental sustainability, with a focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing the share of low-carbon energy sources.

9.3. Transportation Infrastructure

The Czech Republic has a well-developed and dense transportation network, benefiting from its central location in Europe.

• Road Network: As of 2020, the road network spanned 35 K mile ^{(55.77 K km)}, including 0.8 K mile ^{(1.28 K km)} of motorways (dálnice_motorways^Czech). Speed limits are generally 31 mph ^{(50 km/h)} in towns, 56 mph ^{(90 km/h)} outside towns, and 81 mph ^{(130 km/h)} on motorways.
• Railway Network: The country boasts one of the densest railway networks in the world. As of 2020, there were 5.9 K mile ^{(9.54 K km)} of railway lines, of which 2.0 K mile ^{(3.24 K km)} were electrified. The main railway operator is České dráhy (Czech Railways), carrying approximately 180 million passengers annually. The maximum speed on conventional lines is typically 99 mph ^{(160 km/h)}, with plans for high-speed rail development.
• Air Transport: Václav Havel Airport Prague is the main international airport, handling 17.8 million passengers in 2019. There are 91 airports in total, with six providing public international air services: Prague, Brno (Brno-Tuřany Airport), Ostrava (Leoš Janáček Airport Ostrava), Karlovy Vary, and Pardubice. Other non-public international airports capable of handling airliners exist at Kunovice and Vodochody. Czech Airlines is the flag carrier.
• Inland Waterways: Navigable inland waterways, primarily on the Elbe (Labe) and Vltava rivers, handle a smaller portion of freight transport but are important for connections to German ports. The total length of regularly used waterways is around 186 mile ^{(300 km)}.
• Pipelines: The country relies on pipelines for the import of natural gas (historically from Russia via Ukraine, now increasingly from Norway and LNG terminals via Germany) and oil.

Public transport in cities is generally efficient, with trams, buses, and, in Prague, an extensive metro system.

9.4. Communications and IT

The Czech Republic has a well-developed telecommunications and information technology (IT) sector.

• Internet Penetration and Speed: The country ranks among the top globally for average internet speeds. Internet penetration is high, with widespread access to broadband services. In the early 2000s, a large number of local Wireless Internet Service Providers (WISPs) emerged.
• Mobile Networks: All major mobile phone operators (T-Mobile, O2, Vodafone) offer services based on GPRS, EDGE, UMTS, and newer technologies like LTE and 5G. Mobile phone penetration is very high.
• Broadband Access: Following the unbundling of the local loop in 2004 and the privatization of Český Telecom (later Telefónica O2, now O2 Czech Republic), ADSL, VDSL, and cable internet services became widely available, offering increasingly higher speeds. Fiber-optic connections are also expanding.
• IT Security: The Czech Republic is notable for being the birthplace of globally recognized IT security companies. Avast (which acquired rival AVG in 2016) is a leading provider of antivirus software with a significant global market share. These companies underscore the country's strength in software development and cybersecurity.
• Digital Services: E-commerce and online services are popular. Major domestic internet portals and search engines like Seznam.cz play a significant role in the Czech online landscape.

The government has also promoted digitalization through various initiatives. Prague is the seat of the administrative center for the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA), which manages the Galileo satellite navigation system.

9.5. Tourism

Tourism is a significant contributor to the Czech economy. Prague is consistently ranked among the most visited cities in Europe, drawing millions of tourists annually with its rich history and stunning architecture. In 2001, tourism earnings reached 118.00 B CZK, accounting for 5.5% of GNP and 9% of overall export earnings, employing over 110,000 people.

Key attractions include:

• Historical Cities and Towns: Besides Prague, cities like Český Krumlov (a UNESCO World Heritage site with a well-preserved medieval old town and castle), Kutná Hora (known for the Sedlec Ossuary and St. Barbara's Church, also UNESCO listed), and Telč (with its picturesque Renaissance town square) are major draws.
• Castles and Châteaux: The Czech Republic is famous for its numerous castles and châteaux, with over 2,000 in the country. Prominent examples include Karlštejn Castle, Konopiště Château, Hluboká Castle, and the Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape (UNESCO).
• UNESCO World Heritage Sites: The country boasts 17 sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (as of 2024), reflecting its rich cultural and natural heritage.
• Natural Landscapes: Areas like Bohemian Paradise (Český ráj_{Bohemian Paradise}^Czech) with its rock formations, Šumava National Park (Bohemian Forest) for hiking and nature, and the Krkonoše (Giant Mountains) for skiing and mountain tourism are popular for outdoor activities.
• Spa Towns: Renowned spa towns such as Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad), Mariánské Lázně (Marienbad), and Františkovy Lázně (Franzensbad) have a long tradition of balneotherapy and attract visitors for health and wellness tourism.
• Cultural Events and Festivals: Various music festivals (e.g., Prague Spring International Music Festival), film festivals (e.g., Karlovy Vary International Film Festival), folk festivals, and beer festivals are held throughout the year. Czech puppetry is also a recognized cultural tradition.

While Prague has historically faced some issues with overcharging by taxis or pickpocketing, the situation has improved, and the Czech Republic is generally considered a safe country for tourists with a low crime rate. Aquapalace Prague in Čestlice is the largest water park in the country.

10.1. Population

As of 2021, the population of the Czech Republic was approximately 10.7 million. The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2020 was estimated at 1.71 children per woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, a common trend in many European countries. The average age of the population was 43.3 years in 2021. Life expectancy in 2021 was estimated to be 79.5 years (76.55 years for males and 82.61 years for females).

The country has experienced various population trends, including periods of decline and, more recently, growth fueled partly by immigration. Annually, around 77,000 people immigrate to the Czech Republic. Immigrant communities, such as those from Ukraine, Slovakia, and Vietnam, contribute to the country's demographic and cultural makeup. Vietnamese immigrants, for instance, began settling in the country during the Communist era, often as guest workers, and their community has grown to around 70,000 as of 2009, with many choosing to stay permanently. Population density is approximately 136 people per square kilometer.

10.2. Religion

The Czech Republic is characterized by one of the highest proportions of irreligious, atheist, and undeclared populations in the world. Historically, the Czech people have been described as "tolerant and even indifferent towards religion." This contemporary landscape is a significant shift from the early 20th century when over 90% of Czechs were Christians.

Christianization of the Czech lands began in the 9th and 10th centuries. Following the Bohemian Reformation led by Jan Hus in the 15th century, a majority of Czechs became followers of Hussite traditions. However, the Counter-Reformation, aggressively pursued by the Habsburgs after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, forcibly re-Catholicized the population and suppressed Protestantism, which never fully recovered its former strength. The Catholic Church itself experienced a schism with the formation of the neo-Hussite Czechoslovak Hussite Church in 1920. During the communist era (1948-1989), religious practice was discouraged and suppressed, leading to a significant decline in religious adherence. This trend of secularization has continued in the post-communist period.

According to the 2011 census:

• 34.5% of the population stated they had no religion.
• 10.5% identified as Roman Catholic.
• 1% identified as Protestant (0.5% Czech Brethren, 0.4% Czechoslovak Hussite Church).
• 6.8% identified as believers but not members of specific religions.
• 0.7% were believers affiliated with other specific religions (including 863 people identifying as Pagan).
• A significant 44.7% of the population did not answer the question about religion.

From 1991 to 2011, adherence to Roman Catholicism decreased from 39% to 10.5%, and Protestantism declined from 3.7% to 1%. The Muslim population is estimated to be around 20,000, representing 0.2% of the population. The Jewish community, once sizable, numbered approximately 3,900 in 2021, having been decimated by the Holocaust. Despite the low levels of religious affiliation, Christian traditions and holidays, such as Christmas and Easter, remain culturally significant. The level of religious belief varies significantly across regions, with higher rates in traditionally more religious areas like parts of Moravia (e.g., Zlín Region) compared to more secularized regions like northern Bohemia.

10.3. Education and Healthcare

Education:
Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory for nine years, typically from age 6 to 15. Citizens have access to tuition-free university education at public institutions. The average number of years of education for the adult population is 13.1. The education system is considered relatively equitable compared to other European countries.

The structure generally consists of:

• Preschool education (optional).
• Primary education (základní škola_{primary school}^Czech, usually grades 1-9, divided into two stages).
• Secondary education: This includes grammar schools (gymnázium_{grammar school}^Czech) providing general academic education for university preparation, secondary technical schools, and vocational schools.
• Tertiary education: Provided by public and private universities and colleges. Charles University in Prague, founded in 1348, is the oldest university in Central Europe and one of the most prestigious. Other major universities include Masaryk University in Brno, the Czech Technical University in Prague, Palacký University Olomouc, the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague, and the University of Economics, Prague.

The Czech Republic generally performs well in international educational assessments like the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), often ranking above the OECD average. The UN Education Index also places the Czech Republic favorably.

Healthcare:
The Czech healthcare system is universal, based on a compulsory insurance model where contributions are typically employment-related. It provides a wide range of medical services, and the quality of care is generally comparable to other developed European nations. Fee-for-service care is funded by these mandatory insurance plans. Citizens are entitled to choose their insurance company (from several operating on the market) and their general practitioner. The system aims for accessibility and comprehensiveness. In the 2016 Euro Health Consumer Index, which compares healthcare systems in Europe, Czech healthcare was ranked 13th.

10.4. Media

The media landscape in the Czech Republic is characterized by freedom of the press, guaranteed by the constitution. However, there are legal restrictions against hate speech, the promotion of Nazism, racism, and other content violating Czech law. In the 2021 World Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, the Czech press was ranked 40th. Prague is also the headquarters for Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.

Public service broadcasting is provided by:

• Czech Television (Česká televize_{Czech Television}^Czech, ČT): Operates multiple channels, including the general entertainment channel ČT1, the culture and education-focused ČT2, the 24-hour news channel ČT24, and sports channel ČT Sport. Its news website, ct24.cz, is also prominent. Czech Television is often the most-watched broadcaster overall.
• Czech Radio (Český rozhlas_{Czech Radio}^Czech): Operates national and regional radio stations.

The Czech News Agency (Česká tisková kancelář_{Czech News Agency}^Czech, ČTK) is the national public news agency.

Private television channels are also popular, with TV Nova and Prima TV being major players. TV Nova typically features the most-watched main news program and prime-time entertainment.

The newspaper market includes several national dailies. As of 2020/21, the best-selling were the tabloid Blesk, followed by Mladá fronta DNES, Právo, Lidové noviny, and the business-focused Hospodářské noviny.

Online news consumption is high, with a large majority of Czechs (around 87%) reading news online. Major online news platforms include Seznam.cz (which also operates the popular search engine and news portal Seznam Zprávy), iDNES.cz (associated with Mladá fronta DNES), Novinky.cz, and iPrima.cz.

12.1. Art

The artistic heritage of the Czech lands is long and distinguished. Prehistoric art is exemplified by the Venus of Dolní Věstonice. During the Gothic era, Theodoric of Prague was a prominent painter who decorated Karlštejn Castle. The Baroque period saw significant contributions from painters like Wenceslaus Hollar, Jan Kupecký, Karel Škréta, Anton Raphael Mengs, and Petr Brandl, and sculptors such as Matthias Braun and Ferdinand Brokoff.

In the first half of the 19th century, Josef Mánes was a key figure in the Romantic movement. The latter half of the century saw the rise of the "National Theatre generation," which included sculptor Josef Václav Myslbek and painters Mikoláš Aleš, Václav Brožík, Vojtěch Hynais, and Julius Mařák.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by the Art Nouveau movement, with Alphonse Mucha as its most internationally renowned representative.

Mucha is celebrated for his distinctive posters, such as "The Seasons" series (examples of which are shown here), and his monumental cycle of 20 large canvases, The Slav Epic, depicting the history of the Czechs and other Slavic peoples.

Max Švabinský was another important Art Nouveau painter. The 20th century brought an avant-garde revolution. Czech artists made significant contributions to Expressionism and Cubism (e.g., Josef Čapek, Emil Filla, Bohumil Kubišta, Jan Zrzavý). Surrealism was notably represented by Toyen, Josef Šíma, and Karel Teige. František Kupka was a pioneer of abstract painting with international impact. Illustrators and cartoonists like Josef Lada and Zdeněk Burian gained fame. Art photography flourished with figures such as František Drtikol, Josef Sudek, and later Jan Saudek and Josef Koudelka.

The Czech Republic is also famed for its individually made, mouth-blown, and decorated Bohemian glass and crystal, a tradition that continues to be highly regarded. The National Gallery in Prague manages the largest collection of art in the country.

12.2. Architecture

Czech architecture reflects the country's long history and its position at the crossroads of European cultures. The earliest preserved stone buildings date from the Christianization period in the 9th and 10th centuries.

• Romanesque: Numerous rotundas and basilicas survive from this early medieval period (e.g., St. George's Basilica at Prague Castle).
• Gothic: This style flourished from the 13th century, exemplified by majestic cathedrals, castles, and town halls. St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague, designed by architects like Matthias of Arras and Peter Parler under Emperor Charles IV, is a prime example. Other notable Gothic structures include Karlštejn Castle and Kutná Hora's St. Barbara's Church.
• Renaissance: Arriving in the late 15th century, Renaissance architecture often blended with existing Gothic elements. Pure Renaissance examples include the Queen Anne's Summer Palace (Belvedere) in Prague Castle. Many châteaux with arcade courtyards and geometrically arranged gardens were built by Italian architects.
• Baroque: The Baroque style became dominant in the 17th century, leaving an indelible mark on Czech towns and countryside with opulent churches, palaces, and statues (e.g., Church of St. Nicholas in Prague, Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc). A unique Czech contribution is the Baroque Gothic style, a synthesis of Gothic and Baroque elements developed by architects like Jan Santini Aichel.
• 19th Century Revival Styles: Neo-Romanesque, Neo-Gothic, and Neo-Renaissance styles were popular, evident in buildings like the National Theatre and National Museum in Prague.
• Art Nouveau: This style flourished at the turn of the 20th century, with Prague's Municipal House (Obecní dům_{Municipal House}^Czech) being a prominent example.
• Czech Cubism: A unique avant-garde movement in the early 20th century saw architects attempt to apply Cubist principles from painting and sculpture to architecture, resulting in distinctive buildings found almost exclusively in Prague (e.g., House of the Black Madonna). This later evolved into Rondocubism, a national Czechoslovak style.
• Functionalism: Between the World Wars, Functionalism, with its clean lines and emphasis on utility, became the main architectural style (e.g., Villa Tugendhat in Brno, a UNESCO site).
• Post-War Architecture: After World War II and the Communist coup in 1948, architecture was influenced by Soviet styles (Socialist Realism). The 1960s saw the emergence of the "Brussels style" (named after the Czechoslovak pavilion at Expo 58 in Brussels), and Brutalism was prominent in the 1970s and 1980s.
• Modern and Contemporary: Since 1989, Czech architecture has embraced modern international trends, with notable examples like the Dancing House (Tančící dům_{Dancing House}^Czech) in Prague by Frank Gehry and Vlado Milunić, and the Golden Angel building by Jean Nouvel.

12.3. Literature

Literature from the Czech lands has been written primarily in Czech, but also significantly in Latin and German, and historically in Old Church Slavonic.
Translations of the Bible played a crucial role in the development of the Czech language and literature. The oldest Czech translation of the Psalms dates to the late 13th century, and the first complete Czech translation of the Bible was finished around 1360. The first complete printed Czech Bible appeared in 1488 (Prague Bible). The Bible of Kralice (1579-1593) was the first complete Czech Bible translated from the original languages and had a profound impact on standardizing the Czech language. The 12th-century Codex Gigas is the largest extant medieval manuscript in the world, created in a Bohemian monastery.

Key literary periods and figures include:

• Middle Ages: Early chronicles (e.g., Chronica Boemorum by Cosmas of Prague in Latin), legends, and religious texts. The court of Prague in the late 13th century was a center for German Minnesang.
• Hussite Period: Jan Hus's writings and religious polemics were central.
• Renaissance Humanism: Flourishing of Czech and Latin literature.
• Baroque Period: Dominated by religious themes, often in response to the Counter-Reformation. John Amos Comenius (Jan Amos Komenský) was a major figure, though much of his work was written in exile.
• Czech National Revival (late 18th - 19th century): A crucial period for the revitalization of the Czech language and literature. Key figures include linguists Josef Dobrovský and Josef Jungmann, romantic poet Karel Hynek Mácha (Máj), and writer Božena Němcová (Babička - The Grandmother).
• Modern Literature (late 19th - early 20th century): Realism and symbolism, with authors like Jan Neruda, Alois Jirásek (historical novels), and poet Jaroslav Vrchlický.
• German-Language Literature from Prague: At the turn of the 20th century, Prague was home to a vibrant German-speaking Jewish literary scene, including Franz Kafka (The Trial, The Castle, The Metamorphosis), Max Brod, Franz Werfel, and Rainer Maria Rilke.
• Interwar Period Avant-Garde: A dynamic era with movements like Poetism (Vítězslav Nezval) and Surrealism. Karel Čapek (R.U.R., introducing the word "robot"; War with the Newts) and Jaroslav Hašek (The Good Soldier Švejk, an anti-war satirical novel that became the most translated Czech book) are iconic figures.
• Post-WWII and Communist Era: Literature was heavily influenced by political pressures. Some authors conformed, others wrote in exile (e.g., Milan Kundera, Josef Škvorecký), and some produced samizdat (underground) literature. Notable figures who remained include Bohumil Hrabal and Nobel laureate Jaroslav Seifert (Nobel Prize in Literature 1984).
• Post-1989: A resurgence of literary freedom, with contemporary authors like Milan Kundera (much of whose later work was written in French), Ivan Klíma, Michal Viewegh, and Patrik Ouředník gaining international recognition.

The Czech Republic has the densest network of public libraries in Europe. The international Franz Kafka Prize is awarded annually in Prague. Czech literature and culture have historically played a vital role in national consciousness and movements for political freedom, particularly during the National Revival and in the 1960s.

12.4. Music

The Czech musical tradition is exceptionally rich and has made significant contributions to European and world music. It stems from early church hymns, with evidence dating to the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. Two ancient chorales, "Hospodine pomiluj ny" ("Lord, Have Mercy on Us," possibly dating to the 10th or 11th century and sometimes attributed to Saint Adalbert of Prague) and the "Saint Wenceslas Chorale" (from the 12th or 13th century), served as early national anthems.

Czech classical music flourished through various historical periods, deeply influenced by the vibrant folk music traditions of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia.

• Baroque: Composers like Jan Dismas Zelenka and Bohuslav Matěj Černohorský. Many Czech musicians found fame abroad.
• Classical: The "Czech musical emigration" saw many Bohemian musicians (e.g., Jan Václav Stamic, Josef Mysliveček, Anton Reicha) contributing to musical life in Mannheim, Paris, Vienna, and Italy.
• Romantic: This era produced the most internationally celebrated Czech composers:
  • Bedřich Smetana: Considered the father of modern Czech music. His works, such as the opera The Bartered Bride and the symphonic poem cycle Má vlast (My Homeland), which includes the famous "Vltava" (The Moldau), are iconic.
  • Antonín Dvořák: Gained worldwide fame for his symphonies (especially Symphony No. 9, "From the New World"), cello concerto, Slavonic Dances, and chamber music.
  • Zdeněk Fibich: Another important Romantic composer.
• Modern and Contemporary:
  • Leoš Janáček: Known for his highly original style, drawing on Moravian folk music and speech rhythms. His major works include operas like Jenůfa, Káťa Kabanová, The Cunning Little Vixen, the Sinfonietta, and the Glagolitic Mass.
  • Bohuslav Martinů: A prolific 20th-century composer who wrote in various genres.
  • Other notable 20th-century composers include Josef Suk, Vítězslav Novák, and Alois Hába (a pioneer of microtonal music).

  The Prague Spring International Music Festival, established in 1946, is a prestigious annual event showcasing world-class orchestras, conductors, and soloists. Traditional folk music remains a living tradition, particularly in Moravia. In contemporary music, Czech artists are active in various genres, including rock, pop, jazz, and electronic music.

12.5. Theatre and Film

Theatre:
Czech theatre has deep historical roots, originating in medieval religious plays and folk performances. It played a significant role during the Czech National Revival in the 19th century, with the establishment of the National Theatre in Prague (Národní divadlo_{National Theatre}^Czech) serving as a symbol of national identity and cultural aspiration.

In the 20th century, Czech theatre embraced modern European trends. Karel Čapek's influential 1920 play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) introduced the word "robot" to the world. An innovative form of Czech theatre that gained international acclaim was Laterna magika (Magic Lantern), created for the Expo 58 in Brussels. It was an early multimedia art form combining live acting, dance, music, and film projections. Czech puppetry also has a strong and celebrated tradition, recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2016 (shared with Slovakia). Playwright and dissident Václav Havel became a globally recognized figure before and after the Velvet Revolution.

Film:

The tradition of Czech cinema began in the late 1890s.

• Silent Era and Early Sound: Notable early films include historical dramas and social dramas like Gustav Machatý's erotic film Erotikon (1929). The early sound era was productive in mainstream genres, particularly comedies by directors like Martin Frič and Karel Lamač.
• Animation: The Czech Republic has a world-renowned tradition of animation. Hermína Týrlová was a pioneer, often called the "mother of Czech animation," producing over 60 animated children's short films using puppets and stop-motion. Irena Dodalová, with her husband Karel Dodal, established the first Czech animation studio "IRE Film" in 1933. Jiří Trnka is celebrated as a founder of modern puppet film. Other famous animators include Karel Zeman (known for combining live-action with animation, e.g., "The Fabulous World of Jules Verne") and Zdeněk Miler (creator of the beloved character "Mole," Krtek_Mole^Czech).
• Post-WWII and Socialist Realism: After World War II and the Communist takeover, filmmaking was subject to ideological control, with some exceptions like Krakatit and Men Without Wings (which won the Palme d'Or in 1946).
• Czechoslovak New Wave (1960s): This was a highly acclaimed period in Czech and Slovak cinema, characterized by improvised dialogue, black and absurd humor, the use of non-actors, and a critical yet humane look at society. Key directors included Miloš Forman (Loves of a Blonde, The Firemen's Ball; later an Oscar-winning director in Hollywood), Věra Chytilová (Daisies), Jiří Menzel (Oscar for Closely Watched Trains), Ján Kadár and Elmar Klos (Oscar for The Shop on Main Street). František Vláčil was known for his visually stunning historical dramas like Marketa Lazarová.
• Surrealism: Jan Švankmajer is a distinctive filmmaker and artist, a self-labeled surrealist known for his unique animations and feature films that often blend live-action, puppetry, and grotesque imagery.
• Post-1989: Czech cinema has continued to produce notable films, with directors like Jan Svěrák (Oscar for Kolya) gaining international recognition.

Barrandov Studios in Prague is one of the largest and oldest film studios in Europe, often used by international productions. The Karlovy Vary International Film Festival is one of the oldest and most prestigious film festivals in the world (Category A). Other film festivals include Febiofest and Jihlava International Documentary Film Festival. The Czech Lion Awards are the country's primary film awards.

12.6. Cuisine

Czech cuisine is hearty and marked by an emphasis on meat dishes, particularly pork, beef, and poultry. Goose, duck, rabbit, and venison are also popular. Fish is less common, though fresh trout and carp (traditionally served at Christmas) are exceptions. Soups (polévky_soups^Czech) are an integral part of Czech meals.

Popular national dishes include:

• Svíčková na smetaně (beef sirloin in cream sauce): Beef sirloin marinated and braised, served with a rich vegetable cream sauce, often garnished with a slice of lemon, whipped cream, and cranberry compote, and typically accompanied by dumplings.
• Vepřo knedlo zelo (roast pork with dumplings and sauerkraut): A classic Czech meal consisting of roast pork, bread or potato dumplings (knedlíky_dumplings^Czech), and braised sauerkraut.
• Smažený sýr (fried cheese): A thick slice of cheese (usually Edam or Hermelín) breaded and deep-fried, often served with tartar sauce and potatoes or French fries.
• Smažený řízek (fried schnitzel): Breaded and fried pork or chicken cutlet, similar to Wiener schnitzel.
• Guláš (goulash): A stew of meat (usually beef or pork) and onions, seasoned with paprika and other spices, often served with dumplings or bread.

Dumplings (knedlíky_dumplings^Czech) are a staple, with bread dumplings (houskové knedlíky_{bread dumplings}^Czech) and potato dumplings (bramborové knedlíky_{potato dumplings}^Czech) being the most common. Sauces are often rich and an important component of many dishes.

Traditional Czech desserts include a variety of pastries, cakes, and fruit-filled treats:

• Buchty (sweet yeast buns, often filled with poppy seeds, quark, or jam).
• Koláče (round yeast pastries with various sweet fillings).
• Trdelník (a sweet spit-roasted pastry, though its Czech origin is debated, it's popular at markets).
• Apple strudel (štrúdl_strudel^Czech).

Czech beer (pivo_beer^Czech) has a history extending over a millennium, with the earliest known brewery dating to 993. The Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita in the world. The pilsner style of pale lager originated in Plzeň in 1842 with the creation of Pilsner Urquell. The city of České Budějovice is home to Budweiser Budvar. The South Moravian region has been producing wine since the Middle Ages, with about 94% of vineyards located in Moravia. Traditional liquors include Becherovka (an herbal bitter) and Fernet Stock. Kofola is a popular domestic cola soft drink.

12.7. Sport

Sport plays a significant role in Czech society, with ice hockey and football (soccer) being the most popular and widely followed.

• Ice Hockey: Considered the national sport by many, the Czech Republic has a strong tradition in ice hockey. The Czech Republic men's national ice hockey team achieved a historic gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano and has won the IIHF World Championship multiple times (including three consecutive titles from 1999 to 2001, and a total of six titles as the Czech Republic, plus six as Czechoslovakia). Many Czech players have had successful careers in the NHL, including legends like Jaromír Jágr and Dominik Hašek.
• Football (Soccer): Football also has a large following and a professional league, the Czech First League (Fortuna Liga). The Czechoslovakia national football team was highly successful, winning the UEFA Euro 1976 and finishing as runners-up in the FIFA World Cup in 1934 and 1962. The Czech Republic national football team reached the final of UEFA Euro 1996 and the semi-finals of UEFA Euro 2004. Famous Czech footballers include Josef Masopust (Ballon d'Or 1962), Pavel Nedvěd (Ballon d'Or 2003), and Petr Čech.
• Tennis: The Czech Republic (and previously Czechoslovakia) has produced many world-class tennis players, including Ivan Lendl, Martina Navrátilová (who later represented the US), Jan Kodeš, Hana Mandlíková, Jana Novotná, Petr Korda, Petra Kvitová, and Tomáš Berdych.
• Athletics: Czech athletes have achieved success in various athletic disciplines, notably Emil Zátopek, a legendary long-distance runner who won three gold medals at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics. Jan Železný is a multiple Olympic and World champion in javelin throw.
• Other Sports: Basketball, volleyball, floorball, and various winter sports are also popular. Škoda Motorsport has a long history in rally racing.
• Hiking: Hiking (turistika_hiking^Czech) is a very popular recreational activity, supported by an extensive and historic trail marking system covering approximately 25 K mile ^{(40.00 K km)} of trails across the country. This system, over 120 years old, has been adopted by other countries.

The Czech Republic has won 15 gold medals in the Summer Olympics and nine in the Winter Olympics as an independent nation (plus many more as Czechoslovakia).

12.8. World Heritage Sites

The Czech Republic is home to 17 sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (as of 2024), recognizing their outstanding universal cultural or natural value. Three of these are transnational sites. The sites are:
# Historic Centre of Prague (1992)
# Historic Centre of Český Krumlov (1992)
# Historic Centre of Telč (1992)
# Pilgrimage Church of St John of Nepomuk at Zelená Hora (1994)
# Kutná Hora: Historical Town Centre with the Church of St Barbara and the Cathedral of Our Lady at Sedlec (1995)
# Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape (1996)
# Gardens and Castle at Kroměříž (1998)
# Holašovice Historic Village (1998)
# Litomyšl Castle (1999)
# Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc (2000)
# Tugendhat Villa in Brno (2001)
# Jewish Quarter and St Procopius' Basilica in Třebíč (2003)
# Mining Region Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří (2019, shared with Germany)
# Landscape for Breeding and Training of Ceremonial Carriage Horses at Kladruby nad Labem (2019)
# Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe (2021, transnational site including Jizera Mountains Beech Forest)
# The Great Spa Towns of Europe (2021, transnational site including Karlovy Vary, Mariánské Lázně, and Františkovy Lázně)
# Žatec and the Landscape of Saaz Hops (2023)

Additionally, several other sites are on the tentative list for future consideration.

12.9. Public Holidays

Official public holidays in the Czech Republic are:

• January 1: Restoration Day of the Independent Czech State; New Year's Day (Commemorates the establishment of the independent Czech Republic in 1993)
• Good Friday (Variable date before Easter Sunday)
• Easter Monday (Variable date after Easter Sunday)
• May 1: Labour Day
• May 8: Liberation Day / Victory Day (Commemorates the end of World War II in Europe in 1945)
• July 5: Saints Cyril and Methodius Day (Commemorates the arrival of Slavic missionaries Cyril and Methodius in Great Moravia in 863)
• July 6: Jan Hus Day (Commemorates the burning at the stake of religious reformer Jan Hus in 1415)
• September 28: St. Wenceslas Day / Czech Statehood Day (Commemorates the death of St. Wenceslas, patron saint of the Czech state, in 935)
• October 28: Independent Czechoslovak State Day (Commemorates the establishment of Czechoslovakia in 1918)
• November 17: Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day (Commemorates student demonstrations against Nazi occupation in 1939 and demonstrations that started the Velvet Revolution in 1989)
• December 24: Christmas Eve (Štědrý den_{Christmas Eve}^Czech)
• December 25: Christmas Day (First Christmas Holiday)
• December 26: St. Stephen's Day (Second Christmas Holiday)