Coluccio Salutati

1.1. Early Life and Family

Coluccio Salutati was born on 16 February 1331 in Stignano, a small commune near Buggiano in what is now the Province of Pistoia, Tuscany. His family had experienced political upheaval, as his father lived in exile in Bologna following a Ghibelline coup in Buggiano. After this period, the family eventually returned to Buggiano once it became a more secure part of the Republic of Florence.

1.2. Education and Early Influences

Salutati pursued his studies in Bologna, where his father had resided during his exile. During these formative years, he developed a deep interest in literature and classical studies. He came into contact with prominent Florentine humanists, including Giovanni Boccaccio and Francesco Nelli, who significantly influenced his intellectual development. Salutati's mastery of classical Latin, particularly evident in his letters to Florentine scholars, earned him the admiring nickname "Ape of Cicero" (Scimmia di Cicerone^Italian), a testament to his refined and masterful prose style. He also became an admiring correspondent and disciple of Petrarch, a key figure in early humanism, further solidifying his commitment to classical learning.

2.1. Early Career

After his studies, Salutati began his professional life as a notary in Buggiano. His work as a notary led him to serve in various Italian cities, broadening his experience in public administration. In 1367, he was appointed chancellor of Todi, a city within the Papal States. His service in the Papal States continued when, from 1368 to 1370, he accompanied papal secretary Francesco Bruni to Rome, serving as an assistant in the Papal Curia of Pope Urban V, who had recently returned from Avignon after the Avignon Papacy. In 1370, leveraging his connections within the curia, Salutati became chancellor of the powerful Tuscan city of Lucca. However, he quickly lost this position due to internal political struggles within the city.

2.2. Chancellor of Florence

In 1374, Coluccio Salutati received an appointment in Florence, and the following year, in 1375, he was appointed Chancellor of Florence. This was the most important position within the bureaucracy of the Florentine Republic, placing him at the heart of the city's political and cultural life.

3.1. Revival of Classical Learning

A skilled writer and orator, Salutati drew heavily upon the classical tradition, developing a powerful prose style based on the Latin of Virgil and Cicero. He articulated his view on humanism by stating, "I have always believed I must imitate antiquity not simply to reproduce it, but in order to produce something new." This perspective highlighted his broader vision of humanism, moving beyond mere antiquarianism to foster new intellectual creations.

Salutati dedicated a significant portion of his salary to amassing an extensive collection of 800 books, a substantial number for his time. He actively pursued classical manuscripts, leading to several important discoveries. The most notable of these was the rediscovery of Cicero's lost Letters to his Friends (Epistulae ad Familiares^Latin), which portrayed Cicero as a staunch defender of republican liberty. This discovery profoundly influenced Salutati's own political thought and that of his successors. He also undertook important historical studies, asserting that Florence's origins lay not in the Roman Empire but in the Roman Republic, thereby emphasizing the city's republican heritage.

3.2. Promotion of Scholarship and Education

Salutati was instrumental in fostering the next generation of humanists, actively promoting the works of younger scholars such as Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini, Niccolò de' Niccoli, Leonardo Bruni, and Pier Paolo Vergerio the Elder. His efforts played a crucial role in establishing Florence as a preeminent center for classical studies.

One of his most significant initiatives was inviting the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras to Florence in 1397. Chrysoloras taught one of the first courses in Greek in Western Europe since the end of the Roman Empire. Prior to this, few Westerners could speak or read Greek, and many ancient Greek works of science and philosophy were unavailable in Latin translation. While some Latin texts of Aristotle had arrived in Europe via Muslim Spain and Sicily, these were often translated from Arabic rather than directly from the Greek. By bringing Chrysoloras to Florence, Salutati enabled a select group of scholars, including Bruni and Vergerio, to read the original texts of Aristotle and Plato, marking a pivotal moment in the Renaissance's intellectual revival.

4.1. Major Works

Salutati's body of work includes several significant literary and philosophical treatises:

• De saeculo et religione^Latin (On the World and Religion), completed in 1381.
• De fato, fortuna et casu^Latin (On Fate, Fortune, and Chance), written between 1393 and 1399.
• De nobilitate legum et medicinae^Latin (On the Nobility of Laws and Medicine), published in 1399.
• De tyranno^Latin (On the Tyrant), written around 1400. This work is particularly notable as a precursor to Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, exploring themes of governance and tyranny. It is also known in English as On Tyranny or On the Despot.
• Invectiva^Latin (Invective), from 1403.
• De laboribus Herculis^Latin (On the Labors of Hercules), his unfinished final work.

4.2. Political Philosophy and Thought

Salutati's political philosophy evolved throughout his career. Initially, he was a fervent advocate for republicanism and civic virtue. He championed civic consciousness, arguing that humans are inherently social beings who achieve their full potential only when united by a civic spirit. During the Black Death in the early 1380s, when citizens fled Florence, Salutati emphasized civic responsibility, condemning the act of "abandoning the homeland in a moment of crisis" as unjust, cowardly, immoderate, and imprudent.

He passionately justified the Florentine Republic's struggle against the tyranny of Milan, framing it as a fight for freedom. Salutati asserted that freedom was the true teacher of virtue, the mother of law, and the sole guarantor of human excellence and public good. He proudly claimed Florence as a direct descendant of the Roman Republic, describing it as a "small Rome" and asserting that freedom was an inherited legacy from their ancestors. Consequently, he argued that anyone who believed themselves a ruler over free people implicitly admitted to committing a great crime. These powerful arguments resonated deeply, even provoking Gian Galeazzo Visconti to lament their impact and reportedly attempt Salutati's assassination.

However, Salutati's views on governance became more complex in his later years. Around 1400, as Florence faced increasing military setbacks against Milan, he began to accept certain aspects of autocracy. In De tyranno^Latin, he suggested that "it is natural that the better ones should govern." He even reflected, "Oh, Cicero, if there had been a single monarch in your time, perhaps you would not have experienced civil war and such great disorder." This seemingly contradictory stance involved a rehabilitation of Julius Caesar, whom he argued had brought peace and order to the Roman Republic by ending civil strife, despite his earlier criticisms of Caesar as a dictator. Salutati contended that in the dire circumstances of the late Roman Republic, "no hope for a good outcome could be envisioned" without the "mercy and justice of the conqueror [Caesar]." This shift, favoring public peace and order over strict republican ideals when faced with severe internal conflict, significantly influenced later political thinkers, most notably Machiavelli.

7.1. Contemporary Assessment

During his lifetime, Salutati was widely recognized and admired for his intellectual prowess and diplomatic skill. His mastery of classical Latin earned him the admiring nickname "Ape of Cicero" (Scimmia di Cicerone^Italian). His rhetorical power was so formidable that Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Florence's formidable rival, famously remarked that "one of Salutati's letters could cause more damage than a thousand Florentine horsemen," highlighting his significant influence in political and diplomatic affairs. Younger scholars from across Italy flocked to him, revering him as their "spiritual teacher." One contemporary observer lauded him as the "master of eloquence who revived all ancient poetic geniuses," a testament to his profound impact on the revival of classical literature and rhetoric.

7.2. Influence on Later Thinkers

Salutati's lasting influence extended to subsequent generations of Renaissance thinkers, firmly establishing Florence's prominence as an intellectual hub. His ideas were disseminated throughout Italy by his disciples, including prominent figures like Leonardo Bruni and Poggio Bracciolini. Bruni, in particular, continued Salutati's civic humanism, further developing the republican view of history that Salutati had championed, particularly through their shared appreciation of Cicero and critical re-evaluation of Caesar. Salutati's efforts in promoting classical scholarship and fostering a new generation of humanists were instrumental in solidifying Florence's reputation as the intellectual capital of the Renaissance, laying the groundwork for the city's continued cultural flourishing.

7.3. Commemoration

In a significant posthumous tribute, the Florentine government demonstrated its profound respect and gratitude for Coluccio Salutati's service by covering the expenses of his funeral in 1406, a rare honor that underscored his invaluable contributions to the Republic.