Charles Hodge

1.1. Early Life and Family Background

Charles Hodge was born on December 27, 1797, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His father, Hugh Hodge, was the son of a Scotsman who had emigrated from Northern Ireland in the early 18th century. Hugh was a graduate of Princeton College in 1773 and served as a military surgeon during the American Revolutionary War, after which he established a medical practice in Philadelphia. In 1790, Hugh married Mary Blanchard, a well-born orphan from Boston. The family faced tragedy early on, as their first three sons died during the Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793, and another son perished in a subsequent yellow fever epidemic in 1795. Their first son to survive childhood, Hugh Lenox Hodge, was born in 1796 and later became a renowned authority in obstetrics; he maintained a particularly close relationship with Charles, often providing financial assistance. Charles's father died seven months after his birth due to complications from the yellow fever he had contracted in 1795.

Left a widow, Mary Hodge made considerable sacrifices, including taking in boarders, to ensure her sons received a proper education. With the assistance of the family's minister, Ashbel Green, she also provided the customary Presbyterian religious education, emphasizing the Westminster Shorter Catechism. In 1810, the family moved to Somerville, New Jersey, for Charles to attend a classical academy, and then relocated to Princeton in 1812 so he could enroll in Princeton College.

1.2. Education and Conversion

Princeton College, originally established to train Presbyterian ministers, played a pivotal role in Hodge's early education. In 1812, Princeton Theological Seminary was founded as a separate institution by the Presbyterian Church to address perceived inadequacies in ministerial training at the university and concerns that the college was drifting from orthodox teachings. Concurrently, Ashbel Green, the family's former minister, assumed the presidency of Princeton College, where he emphasized the spiritual life of students, making memorization of the Westminster Shorter Catechism mandatory, akin to the approach of former President Jonathan Edwards.

During his time at Princeton, Hodge benefited from the special interest shown by Archibald Alexander, the first president of the newly established seminary, who tutored him in Greek and accompanied him on itinerant preaching trips. Hodge later honored Alexander by naming his first son, Archibald Alexander Hodge, after him. He formed close friendships with future Episcopalian bishops John Johns and Charles Pettit McIlvaine, as well as future Princeton College president John McLean.

A significant spiritual turning point for Hodge occurred in 1815 amidst intense religious fervor among the students, encouraged by Green and Alexander. On January 15, 1815, he publicly professed his faith before the congregation of the Princeton Presbyterian Church, becoming the first convert of the revival that year. This experience solidified his decision to enter the ministry. He enrolled in Princeton Theological Seminary in 1816, where the curriculum was exceptionally rigorous, requiring students to recite scripture in its original languages and to study dogmatics using the 17th-century Latin work Institutio Theologiae Elencticae by the Reformed scholastic Francis Turretin. Professors Alexander and Samuel Miller were also instrumental in fostering deep piety among their students.

1.3. Early Career and European Study

After graduating from Princeton Seminary in 1819, Hodge continued his studies privately with Hebrew scholar Rev. Joseph Bates in Philadelphia. He received his preaching license from the Presbytery of Philadelphia in 1820 and regularly served as a missionary in vacant pulpits in areas such as East Falls and the Frankford Arsenal in Philadelphia, and Woodbury, New Jersey. In 1820, he accepted a one-year appointment as an assistant professor at Princeton Seminary, focusing on biblical languages. That same year, he traveled throughout New England to consult with professors and ministers, including Moses Stuart at Andover Seminary and Nathaniel W. Taylor at Yale Divinity School.

In 1821, he was ordained a minister by the Presbytery of New Brunswick. The following year, he published his first pamphlet, which led to Alexander's successful persuasion of the General Assembly to appoint Hodge as a full Professor of Oriental and Biblical Literature. Now financially stable, Hodge married Sarah Bache, a great-granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin, in 1822. In 1824, he co-founded the Chi Phi Society with Robert Baird and Archibald Alexander. In 1825, he established the quarterly journal Biblical Repertory to facilitate the translation and dissemination of contemporary European biblical scholarship.

Hodge's engagement with European scholarship prompted him to feel that his own training was inadequate. The seminary granted him a two-year leave of absence with pay to study abroad, a period during which he personally covered the expense of a substitute, John Williamson Nevin. From 1826 to 1828, Hodge embarked on his European journey, visiting Paris, where he studied French, Arabic, and Syriac. He then moved to Halle, studying German with George Müller and meeting August Tholuck. In Berlin, he attended lectures by Silvestre de Sacy, Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg, and August Neander, and also met Friedrich Schleiermacher, a leading modern theologian. While admiring the profound scholarship he encountered in Germany, Hodge critically observed that the prevailing idealist philosophy tended to obscure common sense, leading to speculative and subjective theological approaches. Notably, unlike some other American theologians who studied in Europe, Hodge's experience did not alter his fundamental commitment to the principles of faith he had learned since childhood.

2.1. Professor and Principal

From the 1830s, Charles Hodge endured an immobilizing pain in his leg, compelling him to conduct his classes from his study between 1833 and 1836. In 1840, he transitioned to the role of Professor of Didactic Theology, yet he maintained his responsibilities within the department of New Testament exegesis, duties he continued to fulfill until his death.

In 1846, Hodge was appointed moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (Old School). A period of personal and institutional change followed in 1849, with the death of his wife, Sarah Bache, soon after which both Samuel Miller and Archibald Alexander, his longtime colleagues and mentors, also passed away. This left Hodge as the senior professor at the seminary. In 1851, he was appointed Principal of Princeton Theological Seminary, a position he held until his death in 1878.

Throughout his tenure, Hodge was widely recognized as the foremost proponent of the Princeton theology. At his death in 1878, he was lauded by both his allies and opponents as one of the greatest polemicists of his era. Of his surviving children, three became ministers, and two of them, C. W. Hodge, Sr. and A. A. Hodge, succeeded him on the faculty of Princeton Theological Seminary, in the departments of exegetical theology and dogmatics, respectively. His grandson, C. W. Hodge, Jr., also taught at Princeton Seminary for many years, extending the family's academic legacy.

2.2. "Princeton Review" and Scholarly Publications

Hodge's literary endeavors were extensive and deeply intertwined with his academic career. He continued to write articles for the Biblical Repertory, which was later renamed Princeton Review. During the 1830s, he authored a significant commentary on the Book of Romans, which he later revised in 1864 amidst the American Civil War and a notable debate with James Henley Thornwell concerning state secession from the Union.

Other notable works followed, including:

• Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (1840)
• Way of Life (1841), a book that gained significant popularity, was republished in England, translated into other languages, and saw more than 35,000 copies circulated in America.
• Commentary on Ephesians (1856)
• Commentary on First Corinthians (1857)
• Commentary on Second Corinthians (1859)

His most monumental work, the Systematic Theology, was published between 1871 and 1873, comprising three volumes and spanning 2,260 pages. His final book, What is Darwinism?, appeared in 1874. Beyond his books, Hodge contributed over 130 articles to the Princeton Review. Many of these articles exerted considerable influence at the time of their publication and were later compiled into volumes such as Selection of Essays and Reviews from the Princeton Review (1857) and Discussions in Church Polity (edited by W. Durant, 1878), securing a lasting place in theological literature.

Hodge's prolific literary output reflects the profound influence he wielded. Over 3,000 ministers received instruction under him, and he was accorded the rare privilege of achieving distinction throughout his long life as a teacher, exegete, preacher, controversialist, ecclesiastic, and systematic theologian. As a teacher, he was widely regarded as having few equals. While not known for popular gifts in the pulpit, he demonstrated exceptional homiletic abilities in the "conferences" held on Sabbath afternoons, where he spoke with characteristic clarity and logical precision, coupled with remarkable spontaneity, tenderness, and unction. His literary prowess was most evident in his contributions to the Princeton Theological Review, many of which are considered masterpieces of controversial writing. These articles covered a broad spectrum of topics, from apologetic questions concerning general Christianity to intricate questions of ecclesiastical administration, often of particular interest to Presbyterians. However, the dominant theological debates in America during his lifetime largely centered on issues of anthropology and soteriology, to which his polemical skills were primarily directed. All of the books authored by Hodge have remained in print for over a century after his death, a testament to their enduring relevance.

3.1. Princeton Theology

Charles Hodge was a central figure in the formation of the "Old Princeton Theology", representing the evangelical Calvinist theological tradition in the United States. He believed that Princeton Theological Seminary had never originated a new theological idea, emphasizing that its role was to advocate for historical Calvinism in opposition to what he perceived as modified and provincial forms of Calvinism that emerged in later periods. Hodge is often classified among the great defenders of the faith rather than among the great constructive minds of the Church. His objective was not to inaugurate a new theological era but to champion the faith of his Church throughout his long and active life. For over half a century, he served as a trusted leader and the most conspicuous teacher of the Presbyterian ministry, significantly influencing the subsequent development of American evangelical theology. His comprehensive understanding of the Christian faith and historical Protestantism is most fully articulated in his monumental Systematic Theology. His teachings were instrumental in shaping the intellectual center for conservative theology at Princeton and profoundly impacted later Fundamentalist and Evangelical movements.

3.2. Biblical Authority and Core Doctrines

A cornerstone of Charles Hodge's theology was his strong assertion of the authority and inerrancy of the Bible as the direct Word of God, inspired by the Holy Spirit. He maintained that the doctrine of the Church affirmed the Bible's inspiration as guided by the Holy Spirit, selecting the most suitable individuals through whom God communicated infallible truths. According to Hodge, when a person speaks as part of God's body, their words are the words of God. However, he emphasized that when God uses his creation as an instrument, He does so in accordance with its inherent nature. He viewed humans as voluntary and intelligent agents, asserting that God would not make them act unconsciously or irrationally. This understanding of human agency, while special, was not seen as entirely free, and it served as a foundational principle in his exploration of systematic theology.

Hodge firmly subscribed to the Westminster Confession of Faith and the Westminster Shorter Catechism and Larger Catechism, which defined the core tenets of his Reformed theology. While he adhered to these confessional standards, he notably used Francis Turretin's 17th-century Latin dogmatics, Institutio Theologiae Elencticae, as a primary textbook during his early teaching career at the seminary. After 1870, he transitioned to using his own comprehensive Systematic Theology as the standard textbook for his students. His theology, while rooted in classical Calvinism, also incorporated the moral philosophy of John Witherspoon's Scottish Common Sense Philosophy, asserting that even fallen humanity retained a moral sense. He also wrote a detailed history of the American Presbyterian Church, meticulously documenting the Adopting Act of 1729.

3.3. Views on the Nature of God

Charles Hodge engaged critically with traditional theological concepts concerning the nature of God. He often voiced objections to the traditional understanding of divine simplicity, instead advocating for a more moderate interpretation. He argued that the views on simplicity as taught by figures such as Augustine, Aquinas, and Duns Scotus fundamentally "destroy any true knowledge of God."

Furthermore, Hodge rejected the traditional notion of divine impassibility, disputing the idea that God's love should not be understood as a feeling. Despite these critiques of specific traditional formulations, he strongly affirmed the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son, as articulated by the First Council of Nicaea. However, he noted that neither the Bible nor the ancient creeds explicitly explained the precise meaning of the term "begotten," beyond indicating a shared nature (as a son shares the nature of his father), likeness (such as eikon, apaugasma, charakter, or logos-revealer), or even a derivation of essence. He considered the ultimate depth of this relation to be inscrutable and incomprehensible to human understanding.

3.4. Influence of Scottish Common Sense Philosophy

The intellectual landscape of Hodge's time was significantly shaped by various philosophical currents, among which Scottish Common Sense Philosophy held a notable position. This philosophical school, particularly as transmitted through figures like John Witherspoon, the sixth president of Princeton University, profoundly influenced Hodge's theological formation and his approach to moral philosophy. While Hodge's European studies in Germany led him to critique the idealist philosophy prevalent there for clouding "common sense" and leading to speculative and subjective theology, he found resonance with the principles of Scottish Common Sense.

Hodge's theology, while firmly rooted in Calvinism, integrated aspects of this philosophy. He argued that even in their fallen state, human beings retained an inherent moral sense, a concept derived from the common sense tradition that emphasized the self-evident nature of moral truths accessible to all rational individuals. This philosophical framework provided a basis for his views on human agency and responsibility within a Reformed theological context, distinguishing his approach from those that might solely emphasize total depravity without accounting for innate moral faculties.

4.1. Stance on Slavery

Charles Hodge's views on slavery were complex and often contradictory, reflecting the deep divisions within 19th-century American society and the Presbyterian Church. In its most abstract sense, Hodge supported the institution of slavery, believing it to be defensible through certain passages in the Bible. He himself owned slaves. However, he was a vocal critic of the mistreatment of slaves and drew a sharp distinction between slavery in the abstract and what he viewed as the unjust "Southern Slave Laws." These laws, in his opinion, deprived enslaved individuals of fundamental rights, including access to education, marital and parental rights, and subjected them to the "insults and oppression of the whites." Hodge believed that humanitarian reforms of these laws were a necessary prelude to the eventual abolition of slavery in the United States.

His stance aligned with a similar position affirmed by the Presbyterian General Assembly in 1818, which deemed slavery within the United States regrettable and something that ought to eventually be changed, without necessarily declaring it inherently sinful. Hodge harbored sympathies with both the abolitionists in the North and the pro-slavery advocates in the South. He leveraged his considerable influence in an earnest attempt to mediate between these factions, seeking common ground with the ultimate hope of seeing slavery abolished entirely.

It is important to note that Hodge's support for slavery was not an inevitable outcome of his belief in biblical inerrancy and literal interpretation. Other 19th-century Christian contemporaries, who also believed in the inerrancy and infallibility of the Bible, adamantly denounced slavery. For example, John Williamson Nevin, a conservative, evangelical Reformed scholar and seminary professor, condemned slavery as "a vast moral evil." Hodge and Nevin notably clashed over their starkly opposing views on the Lord's Supper, further highlighting the diversity of theological interpretations even among those sharing core beliefs like biblical inerrancy.

4.2. Old School-New School Controversy

Charles Hodge played a leading role in the Old School-New School Controversy, which resulted in a significant division within the Presbyterian Church (USA) in 1837. This controversy was multifaceted, encompassing conflicts over theological doctrine, religious practice, and the contentious issue of slavery.

The Old School faction, led by Hodge, emphasized adherence to the Westminster Confession of Faith and a more traditional, scholastic approach to theology, focusing on doctrinal purity and orderly church governance. They were generally wary of what they perceived as the theological innovations and revivalistic excesses of the New School, which embraced more expansive views on human agency and social reform. Although the Old School generally refrained from explicitly denouncing slavery prior to 1861, the issue was a pervasive underlying tension and point of debate between the Northern and Southern components of the denomination, contributing to the eventual schism.

4.3. American Civil War

During the tumultuous period leading up to and throughout the American Civil War, Charles Hodge's political stance was unequivocally pro-Union. While he could tolerate the institution of slavery in an abstract sense, he found the idea of secession and the breaking up of the United States utterly intolerable, viewing it as treason. As a staunch nationalist, Hodge actively led the effort among Presbyterians to support the Union cause.

In the January 1861 edition of the Princeton Review, Hodge meticulously laid out his arguments against secession, ultimately declaring it unconstitutional. His position was directly challenged by James Henley Thornwell, a prominent Southern Presbyterian theologian, who, in the January 1861 Southern Presbyterian Review, contended that the 1860 election had installed a new government with which the South disagreed, thereby making secession lawful.

Despite his strong Unionist political convictions, Hodge voted against supporting the "Spring Resolutions" at the 1861 General Assembly of the Old School Presbyterian Church. He believed it was not within the proper jurisdiction of the church to involve itself directly in political matters, even if he agreed with the underlying sentiment. The Spring Resolutions, which pledged support for the federal government, sparked objections based on concerns about the scope of church authority and differing interpretations of the United States Constitution. As a result of these resolutions, the Old School denomination subsequently split along North-South lines. In December 1861, the Southern Old School Presbyterian churches formally severed ties with the Northern denomination.

4.4. Critique of Darwinism

Charles Hodge was a prominent voice in the 19th-century conflict between science and religion, particularly regarding Darwin's theory of evolution. In 1874, Hodge published his influential book What is Darwinism?, in which he unequivocally claimed that Darwinism was, in essence, atheism. He fundamentally argued that Darwinism's concept of undirected natural selection was antithetical to the notion of design in the universe and was therefore clearly atheistic.

Hodge consistently attacked Darwinism in both his book and in articles for the Princeton Review. His views significantly shaped the position of Princeton Theological Seminary until his death in 1878. While he did not consider all evolutionary ideas to be in conflict with his religious beliefs, his primary concern was with the teaching of Darwinism in colleges, viewing it as a direct challenge to theism.

At Princeton University, a completely separate institution from the seminary, President John Maclean, Jr. also initially rejected Darwin's theory of evolution. However, upon Maclean's retirement in 1868, James McCosh, a Scottish philosopher, assumed the presidency. McCosh held a different perspective, believing that much of Darwinism could and would be scientifically proven. Consequently, he dedicated himself to preparing Christians for this eventuality, advocating for reconciliation between science and religion rather than conflict. McCosh insisted on the principle of design in nature but interpreted Darwinian discoveries as further evidence of the prearrangement, skill, and purpose inherent in the universe. He thus argued that Darwinism was neither atheistic nor irreconcilably hostile to the Bible. This intellectual divergence meant that American Presbyterians had a choice between two distinct schools of thought on evolution, both originating from Princeton. The Seminary largely maintained Hodge's staunch anti-Darwinian stance until his supporters were ousted in 1929, while Princeton University concurrently developed into a world-class center for the burgeoning science of evolutionary biology.

The debate between Hodge and McCosh vividly exemplified the emerging conflict between science and religion over Darwin's evolutionary theory. Nevertheless, despite their disagreements, the two men shared more similarities regarding science and religion than often recognized. Both supported the increasing role of scientific inquiry in natural history while resisting its encroachment into the domains of philosophy and religion.

5.1. Major Books

Hodge's written works are a testament to his prolific scholarship and his deep engagement with theological and ecclesiastical matters. His magnum opus, the Systematic Theology, is a comprehensive three-volume work that spans 2,260 pages, published between 1871 and 1873.

Other significant books include:

• A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (1837; revised 1864)
• The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (1840)
• The Way of Life (1841)
• A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians (1856)
• An Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians (1857)
• An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (1860)
• What is Darwinism? (1874), his last book, which directly critiqued Darwin's theory of evolution.
• The Spiritual Kingdom: An Exposition of the First Eleven Chapters of the Book of the Revelation (1873), edited by James Beverlin Ramsey.
• Lectures (on Theology) (undated manuscript).
• The Church and Its Polity (1879)

The following table lists his major published books:

5.2. Journal Articles and Sermons

Beyond his major books, Charles Hodge was a prolific writer of academic articles and sermons. He founded the quarterly Biblical Repertory in 1825, which was later renamed the Princeton Review. He contributed over 130 articles to this periodical, many of which were considered masterpieces of controversial writing and exerted significant influence during their time. These articles covered a wide array of topics, from apologetic questions concerning general Christianity to matters of ecclesiastical administration, and his polemical powers were primarily applied to debates in anthropology and soteriology.

Notable articles include:

• "Preaching the Gospel to the Poor" (January 1871, in The Princeton Review)
• "Christianity without Christ" (April 1876, in The Princeton Review)
• "What is Presbyterianism?" (1855)

He also published sermons, such as "A sermon, preached in Philadelphia... American Sunday-school Union, May 31, 1832" (1833). His homiletic abilities were particularly evident in the "conferences" he held on Sabbath afternoons, where he spoke with clarity, logical precision, spontaneity, and remarkable tenderness.

5.3. Modern Reprints

Charles Hodge's theological works have continued to be reprinted and remain influential in contemporary theological studies. His major works are available in modern editions from various publishers, attesting to their enduring relevance.

Notable modern reprints include:

• Systematic Theology: Available from Hendrickson Publishers (1999), also in an abridged version by Edward N. Gross. A Korean translation has also been published (2002).
• Romans: Available as part of The Crossway Classic Commentaries (1994) and the Geneva Series of Commentaries (Banner of Truth, 1998).
• Corinthians (referring to 1 Corinthians and 2 Corinthians separately): Available as part of Crossway Classic Commentaries (1995) and the Geneva Series of Commentaries (Banner of Truth, 1998).
• Ephesians: Available as part of The Crossway Classic Commentaries (1994) and the Geneva Series of Commentaries (Banner of Truth, 1998).
• The Way of Life: A modern edition was published as part of the Sources of American Spirituality series (Paulist Press, 1987), edited by Mark A. Noll.

His collected works are also accessible through digital libraries and online platforms.

6.1. Theological Legacy

Hodge's theological legacy is deeply intertwined with the Princeton Theology, an orthodox Calvinist tradition that he largely shaped and championed. His primary aim was not to innovate but to faithfully defend and articulate Reformed theology as it was set forth in the Westminster Confession of Faith and the Westminster Larger and Shorter Catechisms. He famously quipped that Princeton had "never originated a new idea," emphasizing its role as a custodian of historical Calvinism against what he perceived as deviations.

His commitment to biblical authority and biblical inerrancy became a foundational aspect of his influence. Many of his core theological concepts, particularly his emphasis on the objective truth of Scripture and the systematic exposition of Calvinist doctrine, were widely adopted by Fundamentalist and Evangelical movements in the 20th century. Hodge's deep devotion to Christ was a defining characteristic of his personal experience and served as a crucial test for assessing the spiritual experience of others. Consequently, despite being a staunch Presbyterian and Calvinist, his sympathies extended beyond narrow sectarian boundaries. He opposed overly restrictive views of church polity and rejected the unhistorical position of those who denied the validity of Roman Catholic baptism. His efforts ensured that Princeton remained a central intellectual hub for conservative theology, significantly influencing subsequent generations of ministers and scholars.

6.2. Positive Appraisal

Charles Hodge is widely acclaimed for his significant contributions as a theologian and educator. He instructed over 3,000 ministers during his long career, leaving a profound impact on their theological formation. He earned a rare distinction as an exceptional teacher, exegete, preacher, controversialist, ecclesiastic, and systematic theologian. His abilities as a teacher were considered to have few equals. While not known for dramatic pulpit charisma, he displayed remarkable homiletic powers during his "conferences" on Sabbath afternoons, delivering his thoughts with characteristic clarity, logical precision, spontaneity, and profound tenderness.

His literary prowess was particularly evident in his contributions to the Princeton Review, many of which are regarded as masterpieces of controversial writing. These articles covered a broad spectrum of topics, from apologetics to ecclesiastical administration, and his polemical skills were most notably applied to the core theological debates of his time, especially in the fields of Christian anthropology and soteriology. His consistent defense of Reformed theology made him a trusted leader and a conspicuous teacher for more than half a century, solidifying his reputation as a great defender of the faith. The fact that all of his authored books have remained in print for over a century after his death underscores their enduring value and influence.

6.3. Criticisms and Controversies

Despite his significant positive legacy, Charles Hodge's life and work are subject to notable criticisms and ongoing controversies, particularly concerning his stance on slavery. While Hodge believed that slavery could be supported by certain biblical passages in an abstract sense, and he himself owned slaves, his position was not universally accepted even among his contemporaries who shared his belief in biblical inerrancy. For instance, John Williamson Nevin, another conservative Reformed scholar, strongly denounced slavery as a "vast moral evil." This highlights that Hodge's views on slavery were a product of his historical context and specific interpretations, rather than an inevitable conclusion from his core theological commitments. Critics point to the inherent contradictions in his position: supporting the institution while condemning its abuses, and hoping for its eventual abolition through legal reform rather than immediate, unequivocal denunciation.

His involvement in the American Civil War also drew criticism, specifically his opposition to the Presbyterian Church's direct involvement in political matters. While he was a staunch Unionist, his vote against the "Spring Resolutions" in 1861, which pledged support for the federal government, led to a split in the Old School Presbyterian Church. Some argued that this stance, while principled in his view of church jurisdiction, inadvertently contributed to the perpetuation of the conflict by hindering a unified moral stand against secession.

Furthermore, Hodge's definitive rejection of Darwinism as inherently atheistic placed him at the center of the 19th-century conflict between science and religion. While his concerns about the philosophical implications of evolutionary biology were shared by many, his unwavering stance that Darwinism was fundamentally antithetical to design significantly shaped the theological approach at Princeton Theological Seminary for decades. This position is sometimes criticized for potentially hindering intellectual engagement with scientific advancements and for contributing to a perceived antagonism between faith and scientific inquiry, especially when contrasted with the more conciliatory approach taken by his contemporary, James McCosh, at Princeton University. These areas of criticism continue to be subjects of scholarly debate and assessment when evaluating Hodge's comprehensive impact.