1. Overview
António Agostinho Neto (17 September 1922 - 10 September 1979) was an Angolan revolutionary, nationalist, politician, socialist, and poet who served as the first President of the People's Republic of Angola from 1975 to 1979. He led the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the Angolan War of Independence against Portuguese colonial rule and continued to lead the MPLA during the initial phase of the Angolan Civil War. Beyond his political and military leadership, Neto was a prominent literary figure, considered Angola's preeminent poet. His birthday, 17 September, is commemorated annually as National Heroes' Day, a public holiday in Angola. His life reflected a commitment to national liberation and social progress, though his presidency also involved the establishment of a one-party state and the suppression of opposition.
2. Early Life and Background
António Agostinho Neto's early life was marked by a strong educational foundation and an early exposure to both colonial realities and the stirrings of national identity, which would later shape his revolutionary path.
2.1. Childhood and Education
Neto was born on 17 September 1922, in Ícolo e Bengo, Bengo Province, in what was then Angola. Both of his parents were school teachers and Methodists; his father, also named Agostinho Neto, served as a Methodist pastor. Neto received his secondary education in the capital city, Luanda. After completing high school, he worked for a period in the colonial health services before pursuing higher education.
2.2. Study in Portugal and Early Political Activity
In the 1940s, Neto left Angola to study medicine in Portugal, attending the University of Coimbra and the University of Lisbon. During this time, he began to gain prominence through his involvement in a movement aimed at revitalizing Angola's traditional culture. His academic pursuits were intertwined with covert revolutionary political activities. The PIDE, the security police force of the Portuguese Estado Novo regime led by Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar, arrested him multiple times. He was first arrested in 1951 for three months due to his separatist activism, then again in 1952 for joining the Portuguese Movement for Democratic Youth Unity, and once more in 1955, being held until 1957. Despite these interruptions, he completed his medical studies, graduating in 1958. On the same day he graduated, he married Maria Eugénia da Silva, a 23-year-old Portuguese woman born in Trás-os-Montes.
2.3. Joining Independence Movement and MPLA Leadership
Neto returned to Angola in 1959. His return was short-lived, as he was arrested again on 8 June 1960, for resisting the colonial authorities. In response to his arrest, his patients and supporters marched from Catete to Bengo to demand his release. This protest was met with brutal force by Portuguese soldiers, resulting in what became known as the Massacre of Ícolo e Bengo, where 30 people were killed and 200 wounded. Neto was initially exiled by the Portuguese government to Cape Verde and subsequently jailed in Lisbon. Following extensive international protests urging his release, Salazar's administration freed Neto from prison and placed him under house arrest. However, he managed to escape, first making his way to Morocco and then seeking asylum in Congo-Léopoldville (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), from where he continued the struggle against Portuguese rule.
The Angolan Communist Party (PCA) and the Party of the United Struggle for Africans in Angola (PLUAA) had merged in December 1956 to form the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), with Viriato da Cruz, the PCA President, serving as Secretary General and Neto as its president. In 1962, Neto was formally elected chairman of the MPLA, taking on the leadership of the armed struggle for independence.
3. War of Independence and Presidential Term
Neto's most impactful political activities unfolded during the Angolan War of Independence and his subsequent presidency, where he navigated complex international relations and established the new Angolan state.
3.1. Angolan War of Independence
António Agostinho Neto led the MPLA through the protracted Angolan War of Independence against Portuguese colonial rule, which lasted from 1961 to 1974. Under his leadership, the MPLA emerged as a dominant force in the anti-colonial struggle, employing guerrilla tactics and building international alliances to challenge the Portuguese administration.
3.2. International Relations and Support Acquisition
Neto actively engaged in diplomatic efforts to secure support for the Angolan independence movement. In 1962, he visited Washington, D.C. to appeal to the John F. Kennedy administration for assistance in the war against Portugal. However, the United States government denied his request, primarily due to its oil interests in colonial Angola and its decision to support the comparatively anti-Communist National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) led by Holden Roberto.
A pivotal moment in the MPLA's international relations came in 1965 when Neto met Che Guevara, leading to the commencement of significant support from Cuba. Neto frequently visited Havana, where he and Fidel Castro developed a close ideological alignment.
In February 1973, Neto and an MPLA delegation visited Romania for a four-day official trip (12-16 February) to meet with President Nicolae Ceaușescu and discuss political matters in Africa. Following this, on 17 February, Neto traveled to Bulgaria, accompanied by Lúcio Lara, Ruth Neto, and other party officials, to seek support from Bulgarian authorities. During this visit, he also met with MPLA students studying in Bulgaria, including Dino Matrosse, who would later become the MPLA General Secretary. The MPLA delegation continued their official European tour, visiting Yugoslavia from 18 to 22 February to meet with President Josip Broz Tito.
Neto spent a significant portion of 1973 in Europe, visiting Oslo in Norway, and Geneva on 2 July. In a related development, Tito and Ceaușescu met in Yugoslavia on 15-16 July 1973 to discuss the situation in Angola. Neto himself attended the Bulgarian Communist Party Plenum Committee in Sofia from 17 to 19 July 1973, again with Ruth Neto and Dino Matrosse.
Neto's strong alignment with the Soviet Bloc and Cuba positioned Angola within the Eastern Bloc sphere of influence. This led to a contentious relationship with China, which had provided support to rival Angolan liberation movements like the FNLA and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Neto notably criticized China during the Sino-Vietnamese War, further highlighting his geopolitical stance.
3.3. Establishment of the People's Republic of Angola
The Carnation Revolution in Portugal in April 1974, which overthrew Salazar's successor Marcelo Caetano, dramatically altered the political landscape for Angola. With the impending withdrawal of Portuguese rule, three main political factions vied for power in Angola: the MPLA, the FNLA, and UNITA. On 11 November 1975, Angola officially achieved full independence from Portugal. The MPLA, under Neto's leadership, successfully seized control of the capital, Luanda, prevailing over the other anti-colonial movements. On the same day, António Agostinho Neto was inaugurated as the first President of the newly established People's Republic of Angola.
3.4. Activities During Presidential Term
As president, Neto moved to establish a one-party state, and his government quickly forged close ties with the Soviet Union, other nations in the Eastern Bloc, and particularly Cuba, which provided substantial military and technical assistance to the MPLA, especially in its ongoing conflict with the FNLA, UNITA, and Apartheid South Africa. Neto formally declared Marxism-Leninism as the official doctrine of the MPLA.
His presidency was marked by significant internal challenges, including the violent repression of a movement known as Fractionism. This movement, which attempted a coup d'état in 1977, was inspired by the Organização dos Comunistas de Angola and led by Nito Alves, who had previously advocated for the MPLA to officially adopt a Marxist-Leninist ideology. In the aftermath of the attempted coup, over a period lasting up to two years, tens of thousands of alleged followers of Nito Alves were executed. While Neto only ratified the death sentence of Nito Alves, the scale of the repression was immense. Subsequently, after correspondence with relatives of those who had disappeared, Neto decided to dissolve the Directorate of Information and Security of Angola due to the "excesses" committed by the agency during this period. In December 1977, at their first congress, the MPLA officially adopted the Marxist-Leninist ideology and changed its name to MPLA-PT (MPLA Partido do Trabalho).
According to his sons, President Neto maintained a personal ethic of integrity, asserting that he never used his position to assign business or special privileges to his children, suggesting that despite a controversial presidency, he remained connected to his humble origins.
4. Literary Activities
António Agostinho Neto was a celebrated poet, and his literary contributions are an integral part of his legacy, earning him recognition beyond his political achievements. His poetic works were primarily written between 1946 and 1960, largely during his time studying in Portugal.
He published three books of poetry during his lifetime, and several of his poems were so significant that they became national anthems. Notable collections include Sacred Hope, which was published in 1974 (known as Dry Eyes in its Portuguese version). His poems were featured in various Portuguese and international literary journals and anthologies, including Mario de Andrade's 1958 collection, Portuguese Negro Poetry Anthology.
Neto was the first member to be voted into the Anglo Writers Union and played a role in the establishment of The Center for African Studies in Lisbon. His literary achievements were internationally recognized; he was awarded the prestigious Lotus Prize by the Conference of Afro-Asian Writers.
5. Personal Life
António Agostinho Neto married Maria Eugénia da Silva in 1958. She was a Portuguese woman from Trás-os-Montes. While his public life was dedicated to the liberation and governance of Angola, certain aspects of his personal life became known. His sons have stated that Neto did not grant them any business advantages or special privileges during his time in public service, reflecting his adherence to his humble background.
Neto also had a daughter, Mihaela Marinova, from a brief relationship with a Bulgarian woman. This relationship occurred in 1973 when Neto was in Bulgaria for a meeting of the Bulgarian Communist Party. A DNA test conducted in 2013 concluded with 95% confidence that Mihaela Marinova is his daughter.
6. Death
António Agostinho Neto died on Monday, 10 September 1979, in Moscow, Soviet Union, just a week before his 57th birthday. His death occurred after he traveled to the Soviet Union to undergo surgery for cancer and hepatitis. He had been battling pancreatic cancer and chronic hepatitis for an extended period, which ultimately led to his passing. Due to the high level of medical professionals available, Neto had traveled to the Soviet Union multiple times for treatment. His declining health was largely kept secret from the public by him and his colleagues, as they believed it was better not to reveal any sign of weakness.
Following his death, his body was embalmed by the Soviet authorities. However, a mausoleum for his remains was not completed in Angola. Consequently, in December 1992, the Angolan government decided to proceed with his burial.
7. Assessment and Legacy
António Agostinho Neto's legacy is complex, marked by his pivotal role in Angola's independence and nation-building, as well as by controversies surrounding his governance. He is remembered as a revolutionary leader, a distinguished poet, and a dedicated doctor who profoundly shaped Angola's destiny.
7.1. Positive Assessment
Neto is widely celebrated for his leadership in guiding Angola to independence from Portuguese colonial rule. His contributions to the nation-building process were significant, as he led the MPLA to establish the People's Republic of Angola and implemented policies aimed at consolidating the new state. His efforts as a revolutionary leader, coupled with his background as a doctor and poet, endeared him to many. His birthday, 17 September, is observed as National Heroes' Day, a significant public holiday in Angola, underscoring his revered status in the country. A poem titled "Agostinho Neto" was written in his honor by the renowned Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe.
7.2. Criticism and Controversy
Despite his revered status, Neto's rule attracted criticism and controversy, particularly concerning the suppression of political opposition. The establishment of a one-party state under his presidency limited political pluralism. Most significantly, the aftermath of the 1977 coup attempt by the Fractionism movement, led by Nito Alves, resulted in the violent repression and execution of tens of thousands of alleged followers of Alves over a period of up to two years. These actions have led to allegations of human rights abuses under his government and remain a contentious part of his historical assessment.
7.3. Commemoration and Memorials
Agostinho Neto is widely commemorated throughout Angola and internationally. The public university of Luanda, the Agostinho Neto University, is named in his honor. The Agostinho Neto Mausoleum and memorial stand prominently in Luanda, serving as a national tribute.
Several other institutions and places bear his name:
- An airport in Santo Antão, Cape Verde, is named Agostinho Neto Airport, acknowledging his beloved work there as a doctor.
- The main hospital of Cape Verde in the capital, Praia, is named "Hospital Agostinho Neto" (HAN) for the same reason.
- A morna (a genre of Cape Verdean music) is dedicated to him.
- In New Belgrade, Serbia, a street is named Dr Agostina Neta Street.
- A street in Accra, Ghana, specifically in Airport City, is named Agostinho Neto Road.
7.4. International Awards and Honors
Neto received numerous international awards and honors during his lifetime or posthumously, reflecting his global recognition as a figure of liberation and anti-colonialism. These include:
Lenin Peace Prize (Soviet Union), awarded for 1975-76.
Order of Amílcar Cabral, First Class (Cape Verde).
Recipient of the Order of Playa Girón (Cuba).
Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (Guinea).
Order of the Most Ancient Welwitschia Mirabilis (Namibia).
Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland, First Class (Poland).
Supreme Commander of the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo (South Africa).
Order of the Yugoslav Star (Yugoslavia).
- Recipient of the Royal Order of Munhumutapa (Zimbabwe).